The Exemplary Tale of Śārdūlakarṇa
Toh 358
Degé Kangyur, vol. 76 (mdo sde, aH), folios 232.b–277.b
- Ajitaśrībhadra
- Śākya Ö
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Table of Contents
Summary
The Exemplary Tale of Śārdūlakarṇa begins with the dramatic story of an outcaste girl named Prakṛti, who falls in love with the venerable Ānanda but is subsequently led by the Buddha to liberation and arhathood. In order to explain these events to the upper-caste community of Śrāvastī, the Buddha narrates the story of a learned outcaste king, Triśaṅku, who sought to marry his son, Śārdūlakarṇa, to the daughter of an eminent brahmin named Puṣkarasārin. In this story, the outcaste king advances various arguments against the notion of caste and displays at length his brahmanical—mostly astrological—learning from past lives. When the brahmin’s pride is finally overcome, he grants his daughter’s hand in marriage. At the end of his narration, the Buddha reveals that he was the outcaste king at that time, and that Prakṛti and Ānanda were the brahmin maiden and the outcaste prince, thus showing that caste designations have little meaning in the light of karma and merit across multiple lives.
Acknowledgements
This text was translated by the Bodhinidhi Translation Group. Thomas Cruijsen translated the text from Tibetan into English and compared it with the Sanskrit and Chinese versions. Khenpo Chowang checked a number of passages against the Tibetan.
The translator would like to thank Dr. Pema Tenzin, Central University of Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, in helping to solve a few problematic passages in both the Sanskrit and the Tibetan text. He would also like to express his gratitude to Ms. Saubhagya Pradhananga, Director of the National Archives, Kathmandu, for providing access to the collection of Sanskrit manuscripts microfilmed by the Nepal-German Manuscripts Preservation Project.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. David Higgins edited the translation and the introduction, and Laura Goetz copyedited the text. Martina Cotter was in charge of the digital publication process.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of Shin Nomura, Ozer Nomura Dong and Biao Dong.
Introduction
The Exemplary Tale of Śārdūlakarṇa is one of the primary texts in the Kangyur treating the issue of caste. By the time of the Buddha, the notion of caste had already begun to impact Indian society, with members of the brahmin community propagating the belief that they were spiritually superior to others in a strict social hierarchy fixed by birth.1 On several occasions, as recorded in a number of discourses in the Pali Tipiṭaka, the Buddha repudiated this belief by teaching brahmins that one’s spiritual status is determined not by birth but by merit. As a kind of compendium, The Exemplary Tale of Śārdūlakarṇa contains several of the arguments given in these shorter discourses while adding some others, all placed in the narrative context of a past life story that serves to illustrate the workings of karma. Many of the key arguments advanced in this avadāna were later refined and given a more rigorous philosophical foundation by Buddhist thinkers such as Āryadeva, Vasubandhu, Candrakīrti, and Dharmakīrti, at a time when the caste system had become more societally entrenched across the subcontinent.2
Framing the avadāna is the story of the outcaste girl Prakṛti and the venerable Ānanda, the Buddha’s cousin and close attendant, which begins with an encounter at a well outside the city of Śrāvastī. Ānanda, who wishes to drink some water after his alms round, finds Prakṛti drawing water at the well. As a bhikṣu who has left behind his societal status—in his case, as a Śākya, the kṣatriya upper caste—and is thereby no longer bound by caste, he is unconcerned about caste restrictions and the issue of purity, and so he simply asks Prakṛti for some water. At first Prakṛti hesitates, saying that she is an outcaste, implying that her water offering would “pollute” him, but Ānanda assures her that he has no interest in caste conventions. After he drinks the water and departs, Prakṛti is left deeply impressed by Ānanda’s appearance and demeanor, and she falls madly in love with him.
In her desire to win the venerable Ānanda as her husband, Prakṛti first turns to her mother, who is an expert in magic spells and sorcery, activities often associated in Indian society with lower-caste and outcaste people. Despite her mother’s misgivings, they perform a magical ritual that succeeds in entrancing Ānanda because, still to attain arhatship, he is not yet “free from desires.” Bewitched and confused, Ānanda finds himself in Prakṛti’s house when he suddenly comes to his senses and calls out to the Buddha.3 The Buddha immediately cancels the spell with a mantra of his own—an exceptional event, since there are very few sūtras in which the Buddha uses a mantra in this manner. Once Ānanda has returned to Jetavana, the Buddha then teaches him a short “six-syllable” protective mantra that can be used by anyone seeking release from any predicament, however dire.
Undeterred, Prakṛti, dressed in her finest attire, awaits the venerable Ānanda outside Śrāvastī, and follows him as he makes his alms round in the city. Distressed at her attempts to attract his attention, Ānanda quickly heads back to Jetavana for the Buddha’s help, while Prakṛti continues her pursuit. It is then that the Buddha comes to hear of Prakṛti’s fervent wish, and he begins to lead her onto the spiritual path. The Buddha gives his consent for their union and then ensures that it meets with the approval of Prakṛti’s parents. Once her parents have departed, he asks Prakṛti whether she is willing to take on nunhood to be with Ānanda. In her commitment to Ānanda, Prakṛti pleads for ordination, which the Buddha grants with the well-known phrase, “Come, nun, live the spiritual life” (Skt. ehi tvaṃ bhikṣuṇi cara brahmacaryam). The Buddha subsequently instructs her in the Dharma by what is known as a gradual talk (Skt. anupūrvikā kathā), starting with the basic virtues of generosity and ethical conduct and culminating in the understanding of the four truths of the noble ones. Finally, when Prakṛti recognizes that her infatuated behavior was mistaken, the Buddha hears her confession, thus clearing her last obstacle to arhatship, which she attains soon thereafter.
At this juncture, the avadāna shifts from a tale of love and liberation to one of caste discrimination. When the brahmins and other upper-caste people of Śrāvastī4 come to hear that an outcaste has become a nun and an arhat under the Buddha, they are outraged, and they foresee the circumstance that she will come on alms round in their neighborhoods, which is normally forbidden territory for outcastes. When they inform King Prasenajit, the ruler of the kingdom of Kauśala, at his palace in Śrāvastī, the king, though a devoted follower of the Buddha, shares their disapproval, and together they set out for Jetavana to ask the Buddha for an explanation. Greeted with varying degrees of respect by King Prasenajit’s retinue of brahmins and upper-caste people, the Buddha immediately understands the reason they have come. Thus, after summoning the nun Prakṛti and the assembly of monks, he begins to tell a past-life story that serves to remove the prejudice of the audience.
This long story, which forms the bulk of the text, concerns an outcaste king who wishes to marry his son to the daughter of an eminent brahmin. The outcaste king Triśaṅku is introduced as possessing all brahmanical learning, much of it remembered from previous lifetimes. Interestingly, his name is probably an allusion to Triśaṅku, the king of Ayodhyā, who was degraded to the rank of an outcaste by the Vedic sage Vasiṣṭha and later became connected to a constellation of stars—a story that is told in the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, and the Purāṇas.5 The outcaste king’s son, Śārdūlakarṇa, is briefly described as being flawless in deportment, education, and appearance, but despite his prominence in the title of the avadāna, he does not actively figure in the narrative to follow.
The brahmin Puṣkarasārin is introduced as an eminent scholar fully accomplished in brahmanical learning, but only after noting that his pure status is secured by family lineage. One is here led to recall the eminent brahmin Pokkharasāti (the Pali version of the name Puṣkarasārin) in the Pali canon, who presided over the district town Utkaṭa at the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.6 The brahmin Puṣkarasārin’s daughter, who, like Śārdūlakarṇa, is only briefly described and does not figure otherwise in the story, carries the name Prakṛti, making for an immediate association with the nun Prakṛti, whose past life the Buddha is narrating. The irony of an outcaste girl having been a brahmin maiden in a previous life would certainly not have been lost on this text’s audience.
The narrative begins with King Triśaṅku’s decision to request Puṣkarasārin for his daughter’s hand in marriage, upon which he proceeds to Utkaṭa and awaits the brahmin at the park where the latter regularly teaches. As Puṣkarasārin arrives with his brahmin students, Triśaṅku immediately puts the matter to him, approaching him with a form of address (bho, here translated as “dear”) that is normally used by brahmins among themselves, and often with an air of superiority toward those of lower status. Unaware of the king’s learnedness and past history, the brahmin angrily scolds him for his insolence in even daring such a proposal as an outcaste, and he exclaims, in accordance with caste belief, that matrimonial ties can only be forged within one’s own caste. King Triśaṅku, however, has come with conviction and seeks to counter Puṣkarasārin’s caste beliefs.
In order to show that caste is a mere “commonplace notion” (Skt. sāmānyasaṃjñā; Tib. shes tha mal)7 that has no basis in reality, the outcaste king poses two kinds of arguments to the brahmin. First, he argues that there is no biological distinction among human beings that would indicate different “species” (which in Sanskrit is referred to with the same word as “caste,” jāti): both brahmins and non-brahmins are born from a womb and share the same physical properties. This has direct parallels with arguments made by the Buddha in two discourses in the Pali canon, the Assalāyana Sutta (MN II 148) and the Vāseṭṭha Sutta (Sn 600–611). Triśaṅku next goes to great lengths to point out contradictions in the beliefs and practices that brahmins had formulated to reinforce caste ideas. Thus, after pointing out the brahmins’ hypocritical stance on ritual killing, he refers to the device by which brahmins who have been excommunicated from the brahmin caste due to committing one of four severe crimes can regain their brahmin status through penance. Based on this view, brahminhood is not an immutable fact of nature fixed by birth but rather a fragile social convention invented by humans to secure particular ends. In this vein, by showing that the qualities of virtuous conduct, learning, and wisdom may be equally present among members of the other castes, the text relentlessly criticizes the attempt to legitimize brahminhood as something inborn. These arguments, which assume extensive knowledge of brahmanical literature and law books such as the Manusmṛti, bear a close resemblance to those set forth in the Vajrasūcī, the piercing anti-caste treatise traditionally ascribed to Aśvaghoṣa, the famous Buddhist poet of brahmin background who flourished during the second century ᴄᴇ.8
One of the main targets of criticism in the discussion is the so-called creation myth that brahmins adduced to justify caste hierarchy. According to one of the hymns in the Ṛgveda (Puruṣa Sūkta, 10.90), the supreme being, identified as Brahmā, created the four main castes of human society out of different parts of his body: the brahmin caste from his face or mouth, the kṣatriya or “warrior” caste from his arms, the vaiśya or “merchant-farmer” caste from his thighs, and the śūdra or “servant” caste from his feet. After the brahmin Puṣkarasārin firmly proclaims this belief in reaction to King Triśaṅku’s egalitarian position, the outcaste king makes several arguments that turn the idea on its head. Provisionally adopting his rival’s position, he reasons along theistic lines that if everyone and everything derives from one divine being, then all are of the same nature and thus equal. Additionally, he compares the four castes created by Brahmā to four sons with different names belonging to one and the same father, or to a tree’s fruits that have their origin in the same seed. These arguments, too, are found in the above-mentioned Vajrasūcī. Having undermined the discriminatory purport of this “origin myth” of the four main castes, Triśaṅku proceeds to narrate an alternative, socio-historical account of how castes came into being, not by divine creation but through a gradual division of labor that developed in society over time. This account, with its etymological explanation of the castes (of which we have added the relevant Sanskrit terms in brackets), in fact draws on the socio-genealogical account found in the Aggañña Sutta (DN II 93–95) that is given by the Buddha himself.
Despite the force of the king’s reasoning that humankind is one, that people all belong to one human family, the brahmin remains unconvinced and continues to refuse the proposal for marriage. In response, Puṣkarasārin sets out to show off his brahmanical learning to Triśaṅku. He begins by asking the outcaste king whether he has any knowledge of the various brahmanical scriptures and sciences. Although Triśaṅku had already demonstrated some erudition in his arguments, at this point he openly declares that he possesses all the requisite knowledge and describes in detail how the different brahmanical traditions came into being. After hearing this, the brahmin falls silent in embarrassment, and the outcaste king continues to argue why social status is determined not by heredity but by personal merit. As examples, he points to several outcastes and non-brahmins who by their own efforts came to be respected as great sages, even by brahmins. This reference is also made in the Vajrasūcī but has its precedent in the Buddha’s statements in the Vasala Sutta (Sn 137–40).
As Puṣkarasārin comes to realize that the king may indeed possess knowledge that is normally considered the reserve of brahmins, he begins to question Triśaṅku about it. First, he asks the king about the brahmanical lineages in which he acquired this knowledge, and then inquires of his knowledge of the celebrated Sāvitrī mantra, more commonly known as the Gāyatrī mantra, whose recitation throughout history has been the hallmark of a brahmin. In addition to giving a short exposition on the origin of this mantra, Triśaṅku is also able to recite the Sāvitrī mantras specific to each of the other castes (which are not mentioned in any brahmanical sources).
What then follows, occupying the second half of the text, is a lengthy lecture on the various constellations in which the outcaste king demonstrates his extensive knowledge of brahmanical astrology. He discusses the various lunar asterisms and their effects, providing an array of information on the practice of astrological prediction and the interpretation of signs, in which brahmins had specialized since early times. Many of the details in this extensive presentation correspond to those in brahmanical astrological sources such as the Bṛhatsaṃhitā (sixth century ᴄᴇ), but in several places the contents are unique. Thus, the text preserves a rare record of an early stage in the development of Indian astronomical and astrological ideas.9
At the close of Triśaṅku’s erudite discourse on brahmanical science, the outcaste king makes a final revelation. Stating that he can remember his past lives, he discloses how he acquired his erudition in brahmanical learning: in past births he himself was in fact Brahmā, as well as those renowned sages of ancient times who founded the brahmanical traditions. It is only with this revelation, in which Triśaṅku himself exemplifies the true brahminhood that is attainable through karmic merit alone, that Puṣkarasārin is fully convinced of the king’s worthiness. After silencing the protests of his students, the brahmin reconfirms the egalitarian arguments the king had given earlier, and he concludes with an avowal of the law of karma:
Since dark or bright actionsIndeed come to bear fruit,One sees their karmic ripeningAmong the five states of rebirth.
At this point, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin joyfully grants his daughter Prakṛti’s hand in marriage to Śārdūlakarṇa. The marriage story ends with the outcaste king returning to his city as a renowned and revered leader who continues to rule his peaceful and prosperous kingdom according to the Dharma.
After telling this story, the Buddha proceeds to reveal its implications by identifying the true identity of its central characters. To an audience of brahmins and other upper-caste people, he reveals that at that time, he himself was the outcaste king Triśaṅku, while the brahmin Puṣkarasārin was Śāriputra, his close disciple renowned for his intelligence and learning, who, incidentally, is deemed by tradition to have been of brahmin origin.10 This disclosure affirms that it was the outcaste king’s virtuous words and deeds, his “good karma,” that led to his eventual attainment of buddhahood. The Buddha further reveals that the outcaste prince Śārdūlakarṇa was the venerable Ānanda, another of the Buddha’s foremost disciples, and that the brahmin maiden to whom he was wedded was in fact Prakṛti, the outcaste girl who had become an arhat nun. Thus, the point is reiterated that caste designations have no meaning in light of karma and merit.
The Buddha concludes with an admonition to his monks and the rest of the audience to strive diligently and mindfully on the basis of the four truths of the noble ones, the implication being that one may attain the same arhatship that the nun Prakṛti has achieved. At the end of this discourse, sixty monks become arhats, and many brahmins and upper-caste people come to clearly understand the Dharma, while the people of Śrāvastī and the rest of world rejoice in the Buddha’s teaching.
Turning now to the textual history of the Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna, we can see that the story of the venerable Ānanda and the outcaste girl Prakṛti enjoyed considerable popularity within and beyond India over the centuries. There are some ten versions of this story preserved in different places in the Chinese Tripiṭaka.11 The earliest translation (Taishō 551) is attributed to the Parthian monk An Shigao, who lived in Central Asia during the second century ᴄᴇ.12 This version, however, lacks the entire past life story with King Triśaṅku and differs in some narrative details.13 Also, in what is probably the latest version in Chinese, the Śūraṅgama Sūtra (Taishō 945), a text possibly composed in Chinese14 but whose translation is ascribed to Pāramiti in 705 ᴄᴇ, the story occurs without the past life story and instead serves as the introduction. Only in two Chinese translations do we find the past life story regarding Śārdūlakarṇa: one dated to 230 ᴄᴇ and attributed to the Indo-Scythian upāsaka Zhi Qian (Taishō 1300; in collaboration with the Indo-Scythian monk *Dharmadīpa)15 and one by the Indo-Scythian monk Dharmarakṣa (Taishō 1301), which is said to have been translated between 307 and 313 ᴄᴇ.16 This would indicate that, initially, the story of Ānanda and the outcaste girl stood on its own, and that the past life story with its trenchant critique of caste was added at a later stage—perhaps, given the parallels noted in the above summary, under the inspiration of the Vajrasūcī. Judging by the Magadhan measures of weight and distance given in the text, the avadāna was probably put into writing in the Magadha region sometime during the second or third century ᴄᴇ—precisely the period when brahmanical law and caste strictures were starting to be implemented vehemently in Indian society.17
That the avadāna was reworked and supplemented over time can further be seen in the differences between the third-century Chinese translations and the Sanskrit text that is presently extant. Preserved in Nepalese Sanskrit manuscripts that postdate the Chinese translations by almost fifteen hundred years, the Sanskrit text now available to us is greatly expanded in the section in which King Triśaṅku expounds on Indian astrology, adding a large number of additional lectures on such prognostic practices.18 Moreover, besides these additions and some phrases that appear to have been inserted elsewhere in the avadāna, there are also some differences, compared to the Chinese translations, in the actual phrasing of the text. Although this might at first be attributed to the particularities of two vastly different languages—Sanskrit and Chinese—it more likely indicates that a rather different Sanskrit (or Prakrit) text existed in the third century ᴄᴇ. And indeed, an alternative Sanskrit version with alternative phrasing has recently been brought to light on the basis of manuscript fragments from Central Asia probably dating to the fourth century ᴄᴇ.19
The Tibetan translation is much closer to the Sanskrit text preserved in Nepal, though it also lacks the added lectures. The text was translated in the eleventh century by the Tibetan monk Dro Sengkar Śākya Ö (’bro seng kar SAkya ’od) together with the Indian scholar-monk Ajitaśrībhadra. Belonging to the Dro family, Sengkar Śākya Ö had studied Sanskrit in Nepal and India and collaborated on a number of translations with Ajitaśrībhadra, mostly on works preserved in the Tengyur. In view of his sojourn in Kathmandu, it might be the case that for the translation of this avadāna he made use of a Sanskrit manuscript that was procured there, and his translation would therefore present us with the Sanskrit text as it was current in Nepal and India in the eleventh century, although we have to leave open the possibility that the extended Sanskrit version was also in existence at the time. Because the avadāna was translated into Tibetan at a relatively late date, it is not recorded in the Denkarma and Phangthangma inventories of Tibetan imperial translations. It is, however, included in the different Kangyurs from the fourteenth century onward.20
For the English translation offered here we have followed this Tibetan canonical translation of the text. We have therefore omitted the supplementary section that is found only in the extended Sanskrit version, and we have also omitted certain phrases that seem to have been inserted at a later point. That said, we have very often deferred to the Sanskrit throughout the translation, especially in the section on astrology with its specific Sanskrit terms, since the Tibetan translation is not always clear or correct, and it sometimes appears to omit terms and phrases. While some of these cases are explained in the endnotes, we have not exhaustively recorded every instances in which the source texts differ. In the case of the mantras given in the text, we have relied on the Sanskrit to reconstruct the wording, while retaining the less extended form of the mantras as they occur in the Tibetan as well as in an older Nepalese Sanskrit manuscript, which we were able to consult at the National Archives in Kathmandu.21 In other instances, however, the Tibetan proved to be more reliable than the extant Sanskrit manuscripts, which contain numerous textual corruptions. In some cases we also consulted the Chinese translations to help establish correct readings. In this process of establishing an accurate base text, we benefitted greatly from the extensively annotated Sanskrit edition published in Shantiniketan in 1954 by the Bengali scholar Sujitkumar Mukhopadhyaya, who also provided many useful emendations and references in a subsequent study published in 1967.22 For the Tibetan text, we have based ourselves on the text of the Degé Kangyur, in consultation with the variant readings of other Tshalpa Kangyurs given in the comparative Pedurma edition. Our choices in adopting variant readings from the Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese sources are mentioned and discussed in the endnotes.
We may briefly note in closing that The Exemplary Tale of Śārdūlakarṇa has continued to speak to the hearts and minds of people in modern times. As part of the Divyāvadāna, a popular anthology of Sanskrit avadānas, it was among the first Buddhist texts from Nepal that were studied and discussed by the nineteenth-century French scholar Eugène Burnouf in his influential Introduction à l’histoire du buddhisme indien, published in 1844.23 Through Burnouf’s summary and short translation, the story of Ānanda and Prakṛti came to the attention of the German composer Richard Wagner, inspiring him to outline an opera based on this tale of love and liberation.24 It was a century later, however, in 1938, that the Bengali poet and composer Rabindranath Tagore brought the story to the stage in a “dance drama” titled Chandalika (The untouchable girl), which is enjoyed by audiences in India and abroad down to the present day.25
Text Body
The Translation
[F.232.b] {M.1}
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was dwelling at Śrāvastī in Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park.
One morning, the venerable Ānanda put on his robes, took his alms bowl, and entered the city of Śrāvastī for alms. Afterward, having walked his alms round and having had his meal, the venerable Ānanda went to a well for some water.
At that moment there was an outcaste girl named Prakṛti drawing water at that well. The venerable Ānanda said to the outcaste girl Prakṛti, “Please give me some, sister. I would like to drink some water.”27
The outcaste girl Prakṛti replied to the venerable Ānanda, “I am an outcaste girl, Venerable Ānanda.”
“Sister, I did not ask you for your family or caste,” said the venerable Ānanda. “Rather, if you can spare some water, please give me some.”28
The outcaste girl then gave some water to the venerable Ānanda. After drinking the water, the venerable Ānanda set off.
Having closely and thoroughly taken in the features of the venerable Ānanda’s body, face, and voice, the outcaste girl Prakṛti became engrossed in shallow thoughts. Full of desire, she thought, {M.2} “I wish that the noble Ānanda were my husband. My mother, who is a great holder of spells, should be able to draw in the noble Ānanda and make him my husband.”
The outcaste girl Prakṛti then took the water jug and went to her outcaste home. Upon arrival,29 she set the water jug aside and said to her mother, “O mother, listen, there is an ascetic [F.233.a] named Ānanda who is a disciple and the attendant of the great ascetic Gautama. I want to have him as my husband. Mother, you should be able to draw him in!”30
“My child,”31 replied her mother, “I should be able to draw in Ānanda, unless he is dead or free from desires. But King Prasenajit of Kauśala is immensely devoted, loyal, and committed to the ascetic Gautama. If he came to know of this, he would bring the entire outcaste family to ruin. I have heard that the ascetic Gautama is free from desires, and one who is free from desire overcomes all.”32
When this was said, the outcaste girl Prakṛti said to her mother, “Mother, even if the ascetic Gautama is free from desires, should you not obtain the venerable Ānanda from him, I will forsake my life! If you get him, I will live!”
Thereupon, in the middle of the courtyard,33 the mother of the outcaste girl Prakṛti smeared cow dung on the floor and shaped it into a ritual platform. After having strewn it with darbha grass, she set it on fire, and she threw one hundred and eight arka flowers into the fire one by one while reciting mantras. This was the formula: {M.3}
Amale vimale kuṅkume sumane | yena baddho ’si vidyut | icchayā devo varṣati vidyotati garjati vismayaṃ mahārājasya samabhivardhayituṃ devebhyo manuṣyebhyo gandharvebhyaḥ | śikhigrahā devā viśikhigrahā devā ānandasyāgamanāya kramaṇāya juhomi svāhā ||34
At that moment, the venerable Ānanda’s mind became entranced, and he left the monastery and walked to the home of the outcastes.
When the outcaste mother saw the venerable Ānanda coming from afar, she said to her daughter Prakṛti, “My child, that is the ascetic Ānanda who is coming. Go and prepare a bed.”35
Thrilled, elated, and overjoyed, the outcaste girl Prakṛti set about preparing a bed for the venerable Ānanda. [F.233.b]
When the venerable Ānanda had reached the outcaste house, he approached the ritual platform and stood by its side. He then cried out and wept, “I find myself in this dreadful predicament, and now the Blessed One does not take notice of me!”
At that very moment, however, the Blessed One took notice of the venerable Ānanda, and having taken notice of him, he immediately vanquished the mantras of the outcaste with the mantras of a perfectly awakened one. This was the formula:
Then, once the spell of the outcaste had been broken, the venerable Ānanda left the house of the outcastes and began to walk back to his monastery.
The outcaste girl Prakṛti saw this, and as she watched the venerable Ānanda going back, she said to her mother, “Mother, this ascetic Ānanda is going back!”
“Surely, my child,” said he mother, “the ascetic Gautama must have noticed him and countered my mantras.”
“But, mother,” replied Prakṛti, “do we not have mantras more powerful than those of the ascetic Gautama?”
“My child,” the mother replied, “we do not have mantras more powerful than those of the ascetic Gautama. Even mantras that are overpowering to the entire world,38 my child, are all vanquished by the ascetic Gautama when he wishes, but the world does not have the power to counter the mantras of the ascetic Gautama. In this way the mantras of the ascetic Gautama are more powerful.”
The venerable Ānanda then arrived at where the Blessed One was. Having approached him, he venerated the Blessed One’s feet with his head and stood to one side.39 [F.234.a]
As the venerable Ānanda stood there, the Blessed One said to him, “Take up this six-syllable formula, Ānanda, and retain, recite, and master it for the benefit and welfare of yourself, and for the benefit and welfare of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. Ānanda, this six-syllable formula has been spoken by the six tathāgata, arhat, perfectly awakened ones of the past, as well as by the Four Great Kings, by Śakra, lord of the gods, and by Brahmā, lord of this Sahā world. And now it is spoken by me, Śākyamuni,40 the Perfectly Awakened One. You should therefore retain, recite, and master it. It is as follows: {M.5}
Aṇḍare paṇḍare keyūre ’dhihaste saragrīve bandhumati dhara viṣa cili mili sātinimne yathāsaṃbhakte golapati kaṇḍavilāya ||41
“Ānanda, this six-syllable formula offers protection and blessing, such that if one is to be executed, one will be released with the strike of a rod; if one is to be struck with a rod, one will be released with the blow of a fist; and if one is to be struck with the fist, one will be released with a reprimand.”42
“Ānanda, I do not see anything in this world with its gods, its Māra, and its Brahmā, among the multitudes with their ascetics and brahmins, with their groups of gods, humans, and asuras,43 that can overpower when one is protected by this six-syllable formula, when one is blessed with a protective thread tied around one’s arm—except for the maturation of past karma.” {M.6}
With the passing of that night, the outcaste girl Prakṛti washed herself,44 put on new clothes, and adorned herself with a pearl necklace. [F.234.b] She then went to the city of Śrāvastī, where she stood by the city gate and waited for the venerable Ānanda to come, thinking, “The monk Ānanda will certainly be coming by this road.”
In the morning, the venerable Ānanda put on his robes, took his alms bowl, and entered the city of Śrāvastī for alms. The outcaste girl Prakṛti saw the venerable Ānanda coming from afar, and she followed him closely from behind, going wherever he went and stopping wherever he stopped, standing silently by the door at each house where he entered for alms.45
The venerable Ānanda noticed the outcaste girl Prakṛti following him closely from behind. Embarrassed, intimidated, uneasy, and troubled, he quickly left the city of Śrāvastī and proceeded to Jetavana.46 When the venerable Ānanda reached the Blessed One, he venerated the Blessed One’s feet with his head and stood to one side. The venerable Ānanda then said to the Blessed One, “Blessed One, this outcaste girl has been following me closely from behind, going wherever I go, stopping wherever I stop.47 At each house I enter for alms, she stands silently by the door. Help me, Blessed One. Help me, Well-Gone One.”
On hearing this, the Blessed One said to the venerable Ānanda, “Do not be afraid, do not be afraid.”
The Blessed One then asked the outcaste girl Prakṛti, “Prakṛti, is it that you wish to be married to the monk Ānanda?” [F.235.a]
“Venerable Sir, it is my wish,” she replied.48
The Blessed One said, {M.7} “Prakṛti, have your parents given you permission regarding the monk Ānanda?”
“They have given their permission, Blessed One. They have given their permission, Well-Gone One.”
“Then you must have them give their permission in my presence.”49
In obeisance to the Blessed One, the outcaste girl Prakṛti venerated the Blessed One’s feet with her head, circumambulated him three times, and took her leave of him, setting off to her parents. When she reached her parents, she venerated their feet with her head, stood to one side, and said to her parents, “Mother, father, please grant me to Ānanda in the presence of the ascetic Gautama.”
At this, her parents went with the outcaste girl Prakṛti to where the Blessed One was. Having approached him, they venerated the Blessed One’s feet with their heads and sat down to one side. The outcaste girl Prakṛti then venerated the Blessed One’s feet with her head and stood to one side. She said to the Blessed One, “These, Blessed One, are my parents, who have come.”
Thereupon the Blessed One asked the parents of the outcaste girl Prakṛti, “Have you given your daughter Prakṛti permission regarding the monk Ānanda?”
“We have given our permission, Blessed One. We have given our permission, Well-Gone One.”
“Then you may return to your home.”50
At this, the parents of the outcaste girl Prakṛti venerated the Blessed One’s feet with their heads, circumambulated him three times, and took their leave of him. [F.235.b]
Once he knew that the parents of the outcaste girl Prakṛti had left, the Blessed One asked the outcaste girl Prakṛti, “Prakṛti, do you want to be with the monk Ānanda?”
“I want to be with him, Blessed One. I want to be with him, Well-Gone One.”
“I will adopt it, Blessed One. I will adopt it, Well-Gone One. Please allow me to go forth, Blessed One. Please allow me to go forth, Well-Gone One.” {M.8}
Then the Blessed One said to the outcaste girl Prakṛti,51 “Come, nun, live the spiritual life.”
When this was said, the outcaste girl Prakṛti had her hair shaven off and became clad in yellow ochre robes by the Blessed One.52
When he had thus turned the outcaste girl Prakṛti into a nun and allowed her to go forth, the Blessed One instructed, encouraged, uplifted, and inspired her with a dharmic talk. It was a talk to be heard as a remedy for sentient beings who have been stuck in saṃsāra for a long time, that is, a talk about generosity, a talk about ethical conduct, a talk about the heavens, about the dangers associated with sense pleasures,53 about finding release, about the perils, about the mental afflictions, defilement, and purification, and about the factors pertaining to awakening—these were the things that the Blessed One fully explained to the nun Prakṛti.
Instructed, encouraged, uplifted, and inspired with a dharmic talk54 by the Blessed One, the nun Prakṛti had a mind that was elated, propitious, rejoicing, without hindrances, upright, and without rigidity, by which she became ready to understand the teaching of the Dharma.55 [F.236.a] {M.9} When the Blessed One knew that the nun Prakṛti had a mind that was elated, propitious, rejoicing, without hindrances, and without rigidity, by which she was ready and able to understand the most elevated Dharma teaching,56 the Blessed One expounded in full to the nun Prakṛti that most elevated Dharma teaching of the blessed buddhas on penetrating the four truths of the noble ones,57 that is to say, suffering, its origin, cessation, and the way.
Then, while sitting there on her seat, the nun Prakṛti directly realized the four truths of the noble ones, that is, suffering, its origin, cessation, and the way. Just as when a spotless cloth fit for dyeing58 is put in liquid dye it completely absorbs the dye, the nun Prakṛti, while sitting there on her seat, directly realize the four truths of the noble ones, that is, suffering, its origin, cessation, and the way.
When the nun Prakṛti had thus seen the Dharma, attained the Dharma, realized the Dharma, become unshakable in the Dharma,59 understood the Dharma as conclusive, turned toward the attainment of the goal,60 surmounted all doubt, overcome all uncertainty, had no more queries, attained complete confidence,61 and become one who pursues the Dharma in the Teacher’s instruction, no longer relying on or being led by others, becoming thoroughbred in the teachings,62 she fell at the Blessed One’s feet and said to the Blessed One, “I have transgressed, Blessed One. I have transgressed, Well-Gone One. Like a fool, like an idiot, like a stupid person, like an unskillful person, I had bad judgment and acted on the wish to have the monk Ānanda as my husband. [F.236.b] Venerable Sir, I thus see my transgression as a transgression. Seeing this transgression as a transgression, I confess this transgression. I admit that this transgression was a transgression.63 I am committed to restraint from transgression. Hence, may the Blessed One know of that transgression of mine as a transgression. May he be accepting of it out of compassion.”
The Blessed One said, “As you stand firmly in refraining from transgression,64 Prakṛti, you have understood your transgression as a transgression, saying that like a fool, like an idiot, like a stupid person, like an unskillful person, you had bad judgment and acted on the wish to have the monk Ānanda as your husband.65 {M.10} Since you know your transgression, see your transgression,66 and are committed to restraint from transgression, I shall be accepting of your transgression as a transgression. Being henceforth committed to restraint, you should expect a growth of wholesome qualities, not a loss.”67
Having been commended and instructed by the Blessed One, the nun Prakṛti withdrew to a solitary place and vigilantly, ardently, mindfully, fully aware, and effortfully dwelled in seclusion.68 On account of having her hair shaven off, having donned the yellow ochre robes, and having gone forth with perfect faith from home to homelessness, the young lady directly knew, realized, and attained by herself, in this lifetime, the conclusion of the unsurpassable sublime life. She proclaimed, “Birth has come to an end for me, the sublime life has been lived, what was to be done has been done, and I know there is no more cyclic existence from here.”69
Now, the brahmins and householders of Śrāvastī came to hear that an outcaste girl had gone forth under the Blessed One. Hearing of this, they condemned it, saying, “How could an outcaste girl live the perfect life of monks? [F.237.a] How could she live the perfect life of nuns, devoted laymen, and devoted laywomen? How could an outcaste girl enter the communities of brahmins, kṣatriyas, householders, and landlords?”70 {M.11}
Moreover, King Prasenajit of Kauśala came to hear that an outcaste had gone forth under the Blessed One. Hearing of this, he also condemned it, saying, “How could an outcaste girl live the perfect life of monks? How could she live the perfect life of nuns, devoted laymen, and devoted laywomen? How could she enter the communities of brahmins, kṣatriyas, householders, and landlords?”
Reflecting on this, he had a fine carriage yoked. After mounting this fine carriage, he departed from Śrāvastī, accompanied by a large group of brahmins and householders from Śrāvastī. As he approached Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park, he went as far as the terrain allowed his carriage to go, and then dismounted from his carriage and entered Anāthapiṇḍada’s park by foot, accompanied by an army of foot soldiers. Having entered, he approached the Blessed One, venerated the Blessed One’s feet with his head, and sat to one side. The large group of brahmins71 and householders from Śrāvastī likewise venerated the Blessed One’s feet with their heads and sat down to one side. Some engaged in various kinds of pleasant and congenial conversation with the Blessed One and then sat down to one side. Some conveyed their maternal and paternal names and lines of descent72 in front of the Blessed One and then sat down to one side. [F.237.b] Some bowed to the Blessed One with folded hands and then sat down to one side. And some sat down to one side silently.
The Blessed One knew what was on the minds of King Prasenajit of Kauśala and the large group of brahmins73 and householders from Śrāvastī. Thus, in order to tell the account of the nun Prakṛti’s past life, he called for the nun and addressed the monks, “Monks, do you wish to hear from the Tathāgata a Dharma story concerning the nun Prakṛti’s past life?”
The monks replied to the Blessed One, “It is an appropriate time, Blessed One. It is an appropriate moment, Well-Gone One, for the Blessed One to tell a Dharma story concerning the nun Prakṛti’s past life. {M.12} After hearing it from the Blessed One, we will retain it.”
“So then, monks, listen and pay attention well and carefully. I will speak.”
“Yes, excellent Blessed One,” the monks replied in obeisance to the Blessed One.
The Blessed One spoke as follows: “Previously, monks, in a past time, on the riverbank of the Ganges, in an area thick with forests of atimuktaka and sal trees,74 there lived an outcaste king named Triśaṅku, together with many thousands of outcastes. Monks, that outcaste king named Triśaṅku remembered the Vedas, having learned them in past lives, together with their auxiliary sciences and auxiliary sub-sciences, their secret teaching, their glossaries and ritual instructions, [F.238.a] their divisions into syllables, and the fifth Veda of the epics, as well as other treatises. Proficient in words and grammar and fully versed in worldly science, sacrificial mantras, and the characteristics of a great man, without any doubts he gave expositions according to the Dharma and taught the Vedic observances as they were traditionally passed down.75
“Moreover, that king Triśaṅku had a son, a young prince named Śārdūlakarṇa, who was endowed with all good qualities in bodily appearance, family lineage, ethical conduct, and virtue and was handsome, good looking, and pleasing to behold, having a supremely resplendent excellence of complexion.76 King Triśaṅku taught the prince Śārdūlakarṇa the Vedas as he had learned them in past lives, with their auxiliary sciences and auxiliary sub-sciences, their secret teaching, their glossaries and ritual instructions, their divisions into syllables, the fifth Veda of the epics, and other treatises, as well as expositions according to the Dharma and the Vedic observances.
“Then King Triśaṅku thought, ‘This son of mine, the prince Śārdūlakarṇa, is perfectly endowed in bodily appearance, family lineage, ethical conduct, and virtue. Being endowed with all good qualities, {M.13} he is handsome, good looking, and pleasing to behold, having a supremely resplendent excellence of complexion. Having practiced the observances and having learned the mantras, he has mastered the Vedas. This is the time when I should fulfill the duty of getting him married. So now where do I find for my son Śārdūlakarṇa a suitable wife who possesses ethical conduct, virtue, and beauty?
“Now, at that time, there was a brahmin named Puṣkarasārin who lived in the district town called Utkaṭa, which abounded in beings,77 which had grass, wood, and water, which continually yielded grains, and which had been given to him as a brahmic gift by the king Agnidatta.78 [F.238.b] The brahmin Puṣkarasārin was completely pure by both his maternal and his paternal sides, having an undisturbed family lineage and being able to state the caste and line of descent of his foremothers and forefathers up to seven generations. On account of that, he was a teacher who, as a holder of the mantras, had mastered the three Vedas with their auxiliary sciences and sub-sciences, their secret teaching, their glossaries and ritual instructions, their divisions into syllables, and the fifth Veda of the epics, and he was proficient in words and grammar and fully versed in worldly science, sacrificial mantras, and the characteristics of a great man.79
“The brahmin Puṣkarasārin had a daughter, a young maiden named Prakṛti, who was perfectly endowed in bodily appearance, family lineage, ethical conduct, and virtue. Being endowed with all good qualities, she was beautiful, good looking, and pleasing to behold, having a supremely resplendent excellence of complexion.
“Then the outcaste king Triśaṅku thought, ‘To the northeast there is a district town called Utkaṭa, where there lives a brahmin named Puṣkarasārin. He is perfectly endowed both by his maternal and his paternal sides {M.14} and is fully versed in the three Vedas and the scriptures. He enjoys ownership over the district town called Utkaṭa, which abounds in beings, which has grass, wood, and water, which continually yields grains, and which has been given to him as a brahmic gift by the king Agnidatta. That brahmin Puṣkarasārin has a daughter, a young maiden named Prakṛti, who is perfectly endowed in bodily appearance, family lineage, and ethical conduct, and who, endowed with all good qualities, is beautiful, good looking, and pleasing to behold, having a supremely resplendent excellence of complexion.80 Possessing ethical conduct and virtue, she should be a suitable wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa.’
“King Triśaṅku thought about this matter all night, and when the night had passed, at daybreak he mounted his fully white, mare-drawn chariot and, accompanied by a large group of outcaste officials, left the outcaste palace and set off north for the district town of Utkaṭa. King Triśaṅku arrived at a park called Sumanaska to the northeast of Utkaṭa, which, being covered by various kinds of trees, with various kinds of trees blooming, and various kinds of birds singing, was delightful like the Nandana grove of the gods. There he stayed, waiting for the brahmin Puṣkarasārin, knowing, ‘The brahmin Puṣkarasārin will come to teach mantras to brahmin youths here.’ [F.239.a]
“After the passing of that night, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin had also mounted a fully white, mare-drawn chariot {M.15} and, accompanied by a group of students consisting of five hundred brahmin youths, set out from Utkaṭa to teach mantras to the young brahmins.
“The outcaste king Triśaṅku saw the brahmin Puṣkarasārin coming from afar, ablaze with radiance like a rising sun, like a flaring sacrificial fire, like an offering ritual accompanied by scores of brahmins, like Śakra accompanied by scores of gods, like the Himālaya range accompanied by its flora, like the ocean accompanied by jewels, like the moon accompanied by the constellations of stars, like Vaiśravaṇa accompanied by hosts of yakṣas, and like Brahmā accompanied by groups of gods and sages. Seeing him, he went to meet him in accordance with propriety and said, ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, welcome! There is a matter81 I wish to discuss with you—please listen.’
“Thus addressed, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin said to the outcaste king Triśaṅku, ‘No, dear Triśaṅku, it is not appropriate for you to use “dear”82 with a brahmin.’
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, I can use “dear.” ’
“ ‘While it is appropriate for me to use it, it is not appropriate for you to do so.’
“ ‘But dear Puṣkarasārin, a man has four duties that have been undertaken since bygone times: those for the sake of oneself, those for the sake of someone else, those for the sake of one’s kin, {M.16} and those for the sake of all beings in totality. This is a very important matter that I wish to discuss with you—please listen. Please grant your daughter Prakṛti as wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa. I will bestow on you whatever dowry83 you have in mind.’ [F.239.b]
“Hearing these words from the outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin was deeply offended, upset, furious, and not at all pleased. Full of anger, hostility, and resentment, he knit his brow into a three-pointed frown, gasped and panted while rolling his eyes, and, having become red like a mongoose, said to the outcaste king Triśaṅku, ‘Fie on you, you vulgar fellow! You outcaste! This is not appropriate speech for a dog-cooking one! You, who are lowly and born from an outcaste womb, wish to insult a brahmin versed in the Vedas! O evil-minded one:84
“Hearing these words from the brahmin Puṣkarasārin, the outcaste king Triśaṅku replied:
“ ‘So I say this to you, brahmin, that it is a mere commonplace notion of people to speak of “brahmin,” “kṣatriya,” “vaiśya,” or “śūdra.” Recognizing that all this is one and the same, please grant the brahmin maiden Prakṛti as wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa. I will bestow on you whatever dowry you have in mind.’
“Hearing these words from the outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin was deeply offended, upset, furious, and not at all pleased. Full of anger, hostility, and resentment about it, he knit his brow into a three-pointed frown, {M.22} gasped and panted while rolling his eyes, and, having become red like a mongoose, said to the outcaste king Triśaṅku:
“ ‘Kings, O inferior fellow, are those who know how to distinguish properly, whether in regard to the law of the country, the law of the city, the law of the village, the law of the district, the law of dowries, the law of inviting for marriage, or the law of marriage, or in regard to past karma. [F.241.b]
“ ‘These four, O inferior fellow, are the caste categories: brahmins, kṣatriyas, vaiśyas, and śūdras. According to their marriage laws, brahmins may have four kinds of wives: brahmin women, kṣatriya women, vaiśya women, and śūdra women. Kṣatriyas may have three kinds of wives: kṣatriya women, vaiśya women, and śūdra women. Vaiśyas may have two kinds of wives: vaiśya women and śūdra women. Śūdras, however, may have one kind of wives: only śūdra women.
“ ‘Thus, O inferior fellow, brahmins have four kinds of sons: those born from brahmin women, kṣatriya women, vaiśya women, or śūdra women. Kṣatriyas have three kinds of sons: those born from kṣatriya women, vaiśya women, or śūdra women. Vaiśyas have two kinds of sons: those born from vaiśya women or śūdra women. Śūdras, however, have only one kind of sons: those born from śūdra women.
“ ‘The brahmins, O inferior fellow, are sons of Brahmā—they are the sons born from his mouth.93 Kṣatriyas are born from his chest and arms, vaiśyas from his waist, and śūdras from his legs and feet.
“ ‘It was by Brahmā, O inferior fellow, that this world and all its beings were created. {M.23}
“ ‘You, O inferior fellow, do not appear even in the fourth caste.94 I am in the highest caste, the superior caste, the supreme caste, the preeminent caste. [F.242.a] And you actually expect a matrimonial connection? Get lost, you inferior fellow, quickly! Do not insult me further!’
“Hearing these words from the brahmin Puṣkarasārin, the outcaste king Triśaṅku said, ‘Listen here, brahmin, to what I have to say. It is said that it was by Brahmā that this world and all its beings were created.95 And it is said:
“ ‘If inference is also authoritative to you, brahmin, then when you say that Brahmā is one,100 it would follow that his creatures are all of the same kind. We are of the same kind when you say that it is by Brahmā that this world and all its beings were created. And if, brahmin, you take this as authoritative, then it is not sensible, brahmin, for you to speak of four caste categories: brahmins, kṣatriyas, vaiśyas, and śūdras.
“ ‘However, brahmin, if what I am saying is wrong, then, brahmin, we would have to concurrently discern a marked difference within humankind. That is, we would have to discern a marked difference in heads, mouths, eyes,101 ears, noses, {M.26} brows, colors, bodily forms, bodily shapes, bodily appearances, organs of birth, food, and modes of birth.
“ ‘For instance, dear Puṣkarasārin, one discerns a marked difference between cows, horses, donkeys, dogs,102 camels, deer, birds, goats, and sheep and between those born from eggs, those born from wombs, those born from heat and moisture, and those born spontaneously. That is to say, one discerns a marked difference in feet, in mouths, [F.243.a] in colors, in bodily shapes, in food, and in organs of birth and modes of birth. Yet between the four caste categories no such marked difference is discerned. Therefore, all these are one and the same.103
“ ‘Also, brahmin, among those sapwood trees,104 one discerns a marked difference between the mango, the black plum, the date, the jackfruit, the pomegranate, the persimmon, the grape, the citron, the wood apple, the candlenut, the coconut, the tiniśa, the karañja, and so on. That is to say, one discerns a marked difference in roots, in trunks, in bark, in sapwood,105 in heartwood, in leaves, in flowers, and in fruits.106 Yet between the four caste categories no such marked difference is discerned.
“ ‘Likewise, brahmin, among those dry-land trees, one discerns a marked difference between the sal tree, the tamāla tree, the naktamāla tree, the karṇikāra tree, the saptaparṇa tree, the śirīṣa tree, the kovidāra tree, the syandana tree,107 the sandalwood tree, the śiṃśapa tree, the eraṇḍa tree, the khadira tree, and so on. That is to say, one discerns a marked difference in roots, in trunks, in bark, in sapwood, in heartwood, in leaves, in flowers, and in fruits. Yet between the four caste categories no such marked difference is discerned.
“ ‘Likewise, dear Puṣkarasārin, among those milk-secreting trees, one discerns a marked difference between the udumbara tree, the plakṣa tree, the pipal tree, the banyan tree, the valguka tree, and so on. That is to say, one discerns a marked difference in roots, in trunks, in bark, in sapwood, in heartwood, in leaves, in flowers, and in fruits. Yet between the four caste categories no such marked difference is discerned.
“ ‘Likewise, dear Puṣkarasārin, also among those trees with medicinal fruits, one discerns a marked difference between the gooseberry tree,108 the harītakī tree, [F.243.b] the vibhītakī tree, and the pharasaka109 tree, and also between other kinds of medicinal plants, herbs, and trees that grow in the countryside and in the mountains. That is to say, one discerns a marked difference in roots, in trunks, {M.27} in sapwood, in heartwood, in leaves, in flowers, and in fruits. Yet between the four caste categories no such marked difference is discerned.
“ ‘Likewise, brahmin, among flower-bearing trees that grow on dry land, one discerns a marked difference between the atimuktaka tree, the campaka tree, the pāṭala tree, the sumanā tree, the vārṣikā tree, the dhanuṣkārikā tree, and so on. That is to say, one discerns a marked difference in form, in color, in fragrance, and in shape. Yet between the four caste categories no such marked difference is discerned.
“ ‘Likewise, brahmin, among flowers that grow in water, one discerns a marked difference between the lotus, the blue water-lily, the white water-lily,110 the nicely fragrant water-lily, the softly fragrant water-lily, and so on. That is to say, one discerns a marked difference in form, in color, in fragrance, and in shape. Yet between the four caste categories no such marked difference is discerned, Puṣkarasārin, so as to say, “those are brahmins,” “those are kṣatriyas,” “those are vaiśyas,” and “those are śūdras.” Therefore, all these are one and the same.111
“ ‘You must examine it by its intrinsic characteristic, brahmin.114 When brahmins originate from Brahmā, then, by the same reason, kṣatriyas, vaiśyas, and śūdras also originate from Brahmā.115 [F.244.a]
“ ‘Brahmin, it is like a man who had four sons and gave them the names Nandaka (“He Who Has Delight”), Jīvaka (“He Who Has Life”), Aśoka (“He Who Has No Sorrow”), and Śatāyus (“He Who Has a Lifespan of One Hundred”). {M.30} And then, dear Puṣkarasārin, that man would think of his cherished sons that he who is called Nandaka delights, he who is called Jīvaka lives, he who is called Aśoka has no sorrow, and he who is called Śatāyus lives a hundred years.
“ ‘It is by name, brahmin, that a difference is discerned between them, not by birth. Why is this? Because, brahmin, a son is born to his father. For that reason there is this explanation:
“ ‘Those people are established as having marrow, nails, skin, torsos, stomachs, and faces by their own actions. Thus, in transmigration, brahmin, there is no distinction.121 What distinction is there based on birth? Since there is no distinguishing by birth, the four caste categories do not at all exist. {M.31}
“ ‘Therefore I say to you, brahmin, that it is a mere commonplace notion of people to speak of “brahmin,” “kṣatriya,” “vaiśya,” “śūdra,” or “outcaste.” This is one—all this is one and the same. So please grant your daughter Prakṛti as wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa. I will bestow on you whatever dowry you have in mind.’
“Hearing these words from the outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin retorted, [F.245.a] ‘Have you studied the Ṛgveda? Have you studied the Yajurveda? Have you studied the Sāmaveda? Have you studied the Atharvaveda? Have you studied Āyurveda? And the study of ritual? And the inner self? Have you studied the cycle of zodiacs, the groups of lunar asterisms, or the succession of lunar days? Have you studied the cycle of karma?122 Have you studied the auxiliary sciences, geomantic science, the science of propitiousness, or the science of auspices? Have you studied the course of the eclipser Rāhu, the course of Śukra, or the course of the planets? Have you studied worldly science, the exposition of commentaries, grammars,123 or the study of the lunar fortnights124?’ {M.32}
“At this, the outcaste king Triśaṅku replied to the brahmin Puṣkarasārin, ‘I have studied these, brahmin, and more still. Brahmin, although you may say to yourself, “I am the one who has attained expertise in the mantras,” I will speak to you, brahmin, about inference in accordance with the Dharma. For it is known, brahmin, that the people of the first times did not think in terms of “brahmin,” “kṣatriya,” “vaiśya,” or “śūdra.” This is one—all this is one and the same.
“ ‘At that time, brahmin, as people were both similar and dissimilar, there were some people who tended, guarded, and harvested fields (kṣetra) of grain. So the notion arose that “those are kṣatriyas.”
“ ‘Then, brahmin, some other people there thought, “Possession is sickness, possession is a boil, possession is a dart. Let us abandon our possessions and go to a secluded place, build grass huts and leaf huts from grass, wood, branches, leaves, and foliage, and let us dwell inside in meditation.” [F.245.b] There, at daybreak, they would go on alms round to the village for the sake of food.125 The people living in the village then thought, “Oh, these people are doing what is difficult indeed, having abandoned their possessions and having gone outside (bahirnirgata) of villages, towns, and inhabited provinces.” So, in regard to them, the notion arose, “being outside minded (bahirmanaska), they are brahmins.”126 And the village-dwelling people revered them greatly and honored them with whatever was to be given. {M.33}
“ ‘Then, some among those people, when they were not bringing about those meditative absorptions, descended into the villages and taught the words of mantras. The village dwellers said of them, “These people are not all by themselves, they are teachers (adhyāpaka).” So, in regard to them, the notion arose in the world that they are “teachers” (adhyāpaka).
“ ‘This is the cause, this is the condition, that led to the appearance of brahmins in the world.
“ ‘Then, some people became engaged in work associated with distinct timings (vivekakāla) and associated with wealth in various ways (vividha). So, in regard to them, the notion arose that they are “vaiśyas.”127
“ ‘Then, some people crafted a livelihood through petty (kṣudra) labor. So, in regard to them, the notion arose that they are “śūdras.”128
“ ‘Long ago, brahmin, there was a certain person who took a wife, mounted a wagon, and went to some place of wilderness, where the wheel hub of their wagon broke. That is why the notion arose of mātaṅga (“Do not go there”).129
“ ‘For those who cultivated (karṣanti) the land (kṣetra), the notion of “cultivator” (karṣaka) was used. [F.246.a] But there was one who delighted (rañjayati) the assembly with righteous speech, being proper in the conduct of precepts and vows. So, in regard to him, the notion of “king” (rājā) arose.
“ ‘After that, some people forged a livelihood through commerce (vāṇijyā). So, in regard to them, the notion arose that they are “merchants” (vaṇij). {M.34}
“ ‘After that, some people went forth from home (pravrajanti). After going forth, they were victorious over the enemies (parān jayanti), that is, they were victorious over their mental afflictions. So, in regard to them, the notion arose in the world that they are “ones who have gone forth” (pravrajita).
“ ‘Furthermore, brahmin, there is another notion that arose in the world. I will speak to you about it. {M.35}
“ ‘It was Brahmā who recited these Vedas in this world. Brahmā is the greatest ascetic among the gods. He recited the Vedas to Indra Kauśika. Indra Kauśika recited the Vedas to Araṇemi Gautama.130 Araṇemi Gautama recited the Vedas to Śvetaketu. Śvetaketu recited the Vedas to the paṇḍita Śuka. The paṇḍita Śuka divided the Vedas into four, and so there was Puṣya of the Ṛgveda branch, Paṅkti131 of the Sāmaveda branch, the twenty-one of the Yajurveda branch, and Kratu of the Atharvaveda branch.
“ ‘The brahmins belonging to the Ṛgveda branch (bahuvṛca) all know many hymns (bahuvṛca). From Puṣya having been the single one, it has divided into twenty-five, namely, the Śākalas, the Vāṣkalas, and the Māṇḍavyas132—ten Śākalas, eight Vāṣkalas, and seven Māṇḍavyas. This, brahmin, is the Ṛgveda branch: from Puṣya having been the single one, it has divided into twenty-five.
“ ‘Inference is also authoritative to you, brahmin.133 The brahmins belonging to the Sāmaveda branch (chandoga) are all versed in chanting (chandoga). From Paṅkti having been the single one, it has divided into one thousand eighty, namely, the Śīlavalkas, the Āruṇikas, the Laukākṣas, the Kauthumas, the Brahmasamas, the Mahāsamas, the Mahāyogikas, the Sātyamugras, and the Samantavedas. {M.36} There are then twenty Śīlavalkas, twenty Āruṇikas, forty Laukākṣas, [F.246.b] one hundred Kauthumas, one hundred Brahmasamas, five hundred Mahāsamas, one hundred Mahāyogikas, one hundred Sātyamugras, and one hundred Samantavedas. This, brahmin, is the Sāmaveda branch: from Paṅkti having been the single one, it has divided into one thousand eighty.
“ ‘Inference is also authoritative to you, brahmin. The brahmins belonging to the Yajurveda branch (adhvaryu) all perform the sacrificial rites (adhvaryu). From having been twenty-one in number, it has divided into a hundred, namely, the Kaṭhas, the Kaṇimas, the Vājasaneyins, the Jātukarṇas, and the Proṣṭhapadas—ten Kaṭhas, ten Kaṇimas, eleven Vājasaneyins, thirteen Jātukarṇas, sixteen Proṣṭhapadas, and forty-one sages. This, brahmin, is the Yajurveda branch: from having been twenty-one in number, it has divided into a hundred.
“ ‘Inference is also authoritative to you, brahmin. The mantra specialists belonging to the Atharvaveda branch (ātharvaṇika) are all Atharvavedins (ātharvaṇika). From Kratu having been the single one, it has divided into two. From having been twofold, it has divided into four. From having been fourfold, it has divided into eight. From having been eightfold, it has divided into ten.134 This, brahmin, is the Atharvaveda branch: from Kratu having been the single one, it has divided into ten.
“ ‘Inference is also authoritative to you, brahmin. These are the twelve hundred sixteen distinctions that were properly seen by brahmins of yore, whether in Vedic verse, grammar, worldly science, {M.37} or exegesis of words. But no presumption or exclusion is known among them. That is to say, knowing that they are of one caste, they are deemed worthy to become relatives.135 Therefore I say to you, brahmin, that it is a mere commonplace notion of people to speak of “brahmin,” “kṣatriya,” “vaiśya,” or “śūdra.” [F.247.a] This is one—all this is one and the same. So please grant your daughter Prakṛti as wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa. I will bestow on you whatever dowry you have in mind.’
“Hearing these words from the outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin became completely silent and embarrassed, and he stood there with drooping shoulders and head hung low, having nothing to say and absorbed in thought. When the outcaste king Triśaṅku saw that the brahmin Puṣkarasārin had become completely silent and embarrassed, standing there with drooping shoulders and hung head low, having nothing to say and absorbed in thought, he further said to him, ‘You may think, brahmin, that there would be matrimonial ties with someone dissimilar. But it should not be seen in this way by you, brahmin. {M.38} Why is that? Because my son Śārdūlakarṇa possesses the world’s most excellent qualities of knowing what is authoritative, of learning, ethical conduct, wisdom, and so forth.
“ ‘You may think, brahmin, that those who perform the vājapeya sacrifice and those who perform the aśvamedha sacrifice, the puruṣamedha sacrifice, the śamyāprāsa sacrifice, and the nirargaḍa sacrifice are all, after the breakup of their bodies, reborn in a good place, in a heavenly world, among the gods. But it should not be seen in this way by you, brahmin. Why is that? While performing the vājapeya sacrifice, the aśvamedha sacrifice, the puruṣamedha sacrifice, the śamyāprāsa sacrifice, and the nirargaḍa sacrifice, they engage in killing living beings while reciting many kinds of mantras. Therefore I say to you, brahmin, that this is not the way to heaven. Let me explain to you, brahmin, the way to heaven. [F.247.b] Listen:
“ ‘Hence, brahmin, those who previously performed the vājapeya sacrifice, the aśvamedha sacrifice, the puruṣamedha sacrifice, the śamyāprāsa sacrifice, and the nirargaḍa sacrifice grasped at sensory pleasure without inhibition. Thus is heaven sought. Hence, brahmin, those who will subsequently perform the vājapeya sacrifice, the aśvamedha sacrifice, the puruṣamedha sacrifice, the śamyāprāsa sacrifice, and the nirargaḍa sacrifice will senselessly commit enormous slaughter. Therefore I say to you, brahmin, come! Forge matrimonial ties with me. Why? Because outcastes are not despicable by the Dharma. Rather: {M.39}
“ ‘Eightfold is the authoritative way to heaven, and it is held that by these eight ways one goes to heaven. And these eight, brahmin, are taught to be the mother-like sisters who issue forth the world:138 Aditi, the mother of gods; Danu, the mother of demons; Ariṣṭā, the mother of gandharvas; Iḷā, the mother of rākṣasas; Surabhi, the mother of cattle; Vinatā, the mother of eagles; Kadru, the mother of nāgas; and Surasā, the mother of serpents— the sages, those who know generally but also specifically by various kinds of sacrificial rituals, mentally know them to belong to the great Kaśyapa.
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the seven lineages of brahmins. The Gautamas, the Vātsyas, the Kautsas, the Kauśikas, the Kāśyapas, the Vāsiṣṭhas, the Māṇḍavyas—these are the seven lineages of brahmins. Each of these lineages has divided into seven. [F.248.a] Thus, among the Gautamas there are the Kauthumas, the Gargas, the Bharadvājas, the Ārṣṭiṣeṇas, the Vaikhānasas, {M.40} and the Vajrapādas. Among the Vātsyas there are the Ātreyas, the Maitreyas, the Bhārgavas, the Sāvarṇyas, the Salīlas, and the Bahujātas. Among the Kautsas there are the Maudgalyāyanas, the Gauṇāyanas, the Laṅgalas, the Lagnas, the Daṇḍalagnas, and the Somabhuvas. Among the Kauśikas there are the Kātyāyanas, the Darbhakātyāyanas, the Valkalins,139 the Pakṣins, the Laukākṣas, and the Lohitāyanas. Among the Kāśyapas there are the Maṇḍanas, the Iṣṭas, the Śauṇḍāyanas, the Rocaneyas, the Anapekṣas, and the Agniveśyas. Among the Vāsiṣṭhas there are the Jātukarṇyas, the Dhānyāyanas, the Pārāśaras, the Vyāghranakhas, the Āṇḍāyanas, and the Aupamanyavas. Among the Māṇḍavyas there are the Bhāṇḍāyanas, the Dhaumrāyaṇas, the Kātyāyanas, the Khalvavāhanas, the Sugandharāyaṇas, and the Kāpiṣṭhalāyanas.
“ ‘Brahmin, these are the forty-nine lineages, in Vedic verse, grammar, exegesis of words, or worldly science, properly seen by brahmins of yore.140 And there are other lineages still. But no presumption or exclusion is known among them.141 That is to say, knowing that they are the same, you are deemed worthy to become relatives. Therefore I say to you, brahmin, that it is a mere commonplace notion of people to speak of “brahmin,” “kṣatriya,” “vaiśya,” or “śūdra.” All is one—all this is one and the same. So please grant your daughter Prakṛti as wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa. I will bestow on you whatever dowry you have in mind.’ [F.248.b] {M.41}
“Hearing these words from the outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin remained completely silent and embarrassed, and he stood there with drooping shoulders and head hung low, having nothing to say and absorbed in thought. When the outcaste king Triśaṅku saw that the brahmin Puṣkarasārin remained completely silent and embarrassed, standing there with drooping shoulders and head hung low, having nothing to say and absorbed in thought, he said:
“ ‘Therefore I say to you, brahmin, that it is a mere commonplace notion of people to speak of “brahmin,” “kṣatriya,” “vaiśya,” or “śūdra.” This is one—all this is one and the same. {M.44} So please grant your daughter Prakṛti as wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa. I will bestow on you whatever dowry you have in mind.’ [F.249.b]
“Hearing these words from the outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin asked him, ‘What is your family lineage?’
“ ‘I am of the Ātreya lineage,’ he said.
“ ‘What was it in the past?’
“ ‘Ātreya.’
“ ‘What is your Vedic school?’
“ ‘Kāleya-Maitrāyaṇīya.’
“ ‘How many lineages does it have?’
“ ‘Three lineages, namely, the Vātsyas, the Kautsas, and the Bharadvājas.’
“ ‘Who were your fellow students?’
“ ‘The Sāmavedins.’
“ ‘How many divisions of Sāmavedins are there?’
“ ‘Six.’
“ ‘Which are they?’
“ ‘The Kauthubhas, the Cārāyaṇīyas, the Lāṅgalas, the Sauvarcasas, the Kāpiñjaleyas, and the Ārṣṭiṣeṇas.’
“ ‘What is your lineage from your mother’s side?’
“ ‘Pārāśarīya.’
“ ‘Please speak on the Sāvitrī. What is it like? How many syllables does the Sāvitrī have? How many parts? How many metrical feet?’
“ ‘The Sāvitrī has twenty-four syllables, three parts, and eight metrical feet.’
“ ‘Please pronounce the Sāvitrī.’
“ ‘Well then, dear Puṣkarasārin, I will speak about the Sāvitrī together with its origin. Please listen.’
“ ‘Please narrate it.’
“ ‘Long ago, brahmin, in a past time, there was a sage named Vasu. He possessed the five higher knowledges, was fiercely radiant, had great power, and had attained the meditative absorptions. Because of that, he obtained Takṣaka’s daughter, Kapilā, as his wife, and with a mind completely impassioned, he engaged in sexual intercourse with her. Thus the sage {M.45} lost his miraculous power and strayed from his meditative absorptions. Being full of remorse and reproaching himself for his bad conduct, on that occasion he uttered this mantra:146
“ ‘Having thus unintentionally created it, brahmin, he recited the mantra day and night.148 This is the Sāvitrī of brahmins. [F.250.a]
“ ‘In a previous lifetime, the lord of creatures resided within a dense forest, having matted hair and being of ardent practice. Dwelling in deep seclusion, he was in rapture there:
“ ‘Thus, brahmin, this Sāvitrī was spoken by Brahmā, lord of this Sahā world, at which the perfectly awakened ones of the past then rejoiced.’
“ ‘Dear Triśaṅku, please speak on the succession of lunar asterisms.155 How is it? Please describe it.’
“ ‘Please listen, dear Puṣkarasārin, and I will describe the succession of lunar asterisms. It is as follows: Kṛttikā, Rohiṇī, Mṛgaśirā, Ārdrā, Punarvasu, Puṣya, Aśleṣā, Maghā, Pūrvaphalgunī, Uttaraphalgunī, Hastā, Citrā, Svātī, Viśākhā, Anurādhā, Jyeṣṭhā, Mūlā, Pūrvāṣāḍhā, Uttarāṣāḍhā, Abhijit, Śravaṇā, Dhaniṣṭhā, Śatabhiṣā, Pūrvabhādrapadā, Uttarabhādrapadā, Revatī, Aśvinī, and Bharaṇī.
“ ‘These, dear Puṣkarasārin, are the twenty-eight lunar asterisms.’
“ ‘How many stars do they have? What shapes do they have? How many muhūrtas do they last? What are their foods? What are their deities? What are their lineages?’
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, the Kṛttikā asterism has six stars. It has the shape of a razor. Its conjunction with the moon lasts thirty muhūrtas. {M.47} It has curdled milk as its food. It has Agni as its presiding deity. And it is Vaiśyāyanīya by lineage. [F.250.b]
“ ‘The Rohiṇī asterism has five stars. It has the shape of a two-wheeled cart. Its conjunction lasts forty-five muhūrtas. It has deer meat as its food. It has Prajāpati as its presiding deity. And it is Bharadvāja by lineage.
“ ‘The Mṛgaśirā asterism has three stars. It has the shape of a deer’s head. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has fruits and roots as its food. It has the moon as its presiding deity. And it is Mṛgāyaṇīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Ārdrā asterism has one star. It has the shape of a dot. Its conjunction lasts fifteen156 muhūrtas. It has the cream of ghee as its food. It has the Spear Holder157 as its presiding deity. And it is Hārītāyanīya158 by lineage.
“ ‘The Punarvasu asterism has two stars. It has the shape of a foot. Its conjunction lasts forty-five159 muhūrtas. It has honey as its food. It has Aditi160 as its presiding deity. And it is Vāsiṣṭha161 by lineage.
“ ‘The Puṣya asterism has three stars. It has the shape of a dish. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has the cream of honey as its food. It has Bṛhaspati as its presiding deity. And it is Aupamanyavīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Aśleṣā asterism has one star. It has the shape of a dot. Its conjunction lasts fifteen muhūrtas. It has rice porridge as its food. It has the Serpent162 as its presiding deity. And it is Maitrāyaṇīya163 by lineage.
“ ‘These, dear Puṣkarasārin, are the seven lunar asterisms belonging to the eastern quarter.
“ ‘The Maghā asterism {M.48} has five stars. It has the shape of a river bend. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has sesame and rice meal as its food. It has the ancestors as its presiding deity. And it is Piṅgalāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Pūrvaphalgunī asterism has two stars. It has the shape of a foot. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has bilva as its food. It has Bhaga164 as its presiding deity. And it is Gautamīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Uttaraphalgunī asterism has two stars. It has the shape of a foot.165 Its conjunction lasts forty-five muhūrtas. It has wheat and fish as its food.166 It has Aryaman as its presiding deity. And it is Kauśika by lineage.
“ ‘The Hastā asterism has five stars. It has the shape of a hand. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has millet167 as its food. [F.251.a] It has the sun as its presiding deity. And it is Kāśyapa by lineage.
“ ‘The Citrā asterism has one star. It has the shape of a dot.168 Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has mung khichri, ghee, and pūpa cake as its food.169 It has Tvaṣṭṛ170 as its presiding deity. And it is Kātyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Svātī asterism has one star. It has the shape of a dot. Its conjunction lasts fifteen muhūrtas. It has mung khichri and fruits as its food.171 It has Vāyu as its presiding deity. And it is Kātyāyanīya by lineage.172
“ ‘The Viśākhā asterism has two stars. {M.49} It has the shape of a horn.173 Its conjunction lasts forty-five muhūrtas. It has sesame flowers as its food. It has Indra and Agni as its presiding deity. And it is Śāṅkhāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘These, dear Puṣkarasārin, are the seven lunar asterisms belonging to the southern quarter.
“ ‘The Anurādhā asterism has four stars. It has the shape of a pearl necklace.174 Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has liquor and meat as its food. It has Mitra175 as its presiding deity. And it is Ālambāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Jyeṣṭhā asterism has three stars. It has the shape of a barleycorn.176 Its conjunction lasts fifteen muhūrtas. It has gruel as its food.177 It has Indra as its presiding deity. And it is Dīrghakātyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Mūlā asterism has seven stars.178 It has the shape of a scorpion. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has roots and fruits as its food. It has Nairṛti as its presiding deity.179 And it is Kātyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Pūrvāṣāḍhā asterism has four stars. It has the shape of a cow’s hoofprint.180 Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has banyan sap as its food. It has Toya as its presiding deity. And it is Darbhakātyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Uttarāṣāḍhā asterism has four stars. It has the shape of an elephant’s footprint. Its conjunction lasts forty-five muhūrtas. It has honey and parched grain as its food. It has Viśva181 as its presiding deity. And it is Maudgalyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Abhijit asterism has three stars. It has the shape of a cow’s head. [F.251.b] Its conjunction lasts six muhūrtas. {M.50} It has air as its food.182 It has Brahmā as its presiding deity. And it is Brahmāvatīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Śravaṇā asterism has three stars. It has the shape of a barleycorn.183 Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has bird meat as its food. It has Viṣṇu as its presiding deity. And it is Trikātyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘These, dear Puṣkarasārin, are the seven lunar asterisms belonging to the western quarter.
“ ‘The Dhaniṣṭhā asterism has four stars. It has the shape of a bird. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has horse gram as its food.184 It has Vasu as its presiding deity. And it is Kauṇḍinyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Śatabhiṣā asterism has one star. It has the shape of a dot. Its conjunction lasts fifteen muhūrtas. It has gruel as its food.185 It has Varuṇa as its presiding deity. And it is Tāṇḍyāyanīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Pūrvabhādrapadā asterism has two stars. It has the shape of a foot.186 Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has meat187 and blood as its food. It has Ahirbudhnya188 as its presiding deity. And it is Jātūkarṇya by lineage.
“ ‘The Uttarabhādrapadā asterism has two stars. It has the shape of a foot. {M.51} Its conjunction lasts forty-five muhūrtas. It has meat189 as its food. It has Aryaman190 as its presiding deity. And it is Dhyānadrāhyāyaṇīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Revatī asterism has one star. It has the shape of a dot. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has curdled milk as its food. It has Pūṣa as its presiding deity. And it is Aṣṭabhaginīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Aśvinī asterism has two stars. It has the shape of a horse’s head.191 Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has honey and rice porridge as its food. It has Gandharva192 as its presiding deity. And it is Maitrāyaṇīya by lineage.
“ ‘The Bharaṇī asterism has three stars. It has the shape of a vulva. Its conjunction lasts thirty muhūrtas. It has sesame and threshed rice as its food. It has Yama as its presiding deity. And it is Bhārgavīya by lineage.
“ ‘These, dear Puṣkarasārin, are the seven lunar asterisms belonging to the northern quarter.
“ ‘Of the twenty-eight asterisms, dear Puṣkarasārin, six asterisms are in conjunction for forty-five muhūrtas, [F.252.a] namely, Rohiṇī, Punarvasu, Uttaraphalgunī, Viśākhā, Uttarāṣāḍhā, and Uttarabhādrapadā. Five asterisms are in conjunction for fifteen muhūrtas, namely, Ārdrā, Aśleṣā, Svātī, Jyeṣṭhā, and Śatabhiṣā.193 Abhijit is alone in being in conjunction for six muhūrtas. The remaining ones are in conjunction for thirty muhūrtas. {M.52}
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, of the seven asterisms belonging to the eastern quarter, Kṛttikā comes first and Aśleṣā last. Of the seven asterisms belonging to the southern quarter, Maghā comes first and Viśākhā last. Of the seven asterisms belonging to the western quarter, Anurādhā comes first and Śravaṇā last. Of the seven asterisms belonging to the northern quarter, Dhaniṣṭhā comes first and Bharaṇī last.
“ ‘Of the twenty-eight asterisms, dear Puṣkarasārin, seven are powerful. Which seven? The three eastern ones, as well as Viśākhā, Anurādhā, Punarvasu, and Svātī.194 Three are harsh: Ārdrā, Aśleṣā, and Bharaṇī. Four are to be honored through offerings: the three northern ones and Rohiṇī. Five are gentle: Śravaṇā, Dhaniṣṭhā, Śatabhiṣā, Jyeṣṭhā, and Mūlā. Five are to be supported: Hastā, Citrā, Revatī,195 Maghā, and Abhijit. Four are to be acted upon quickly: Kṛttikā, Mṛgaśirā, Puṣya, and Aśvinī.
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, the twenty-eight asterisms have three progressions: the bull-following progression, the calf-following progression, and the joint progression. When the asterism proceeds with the moon behind it, this is called the bull-following progression. When the moon proceeds with the asterism behind it, this is called the calf-following progression. When both the moon and the asterism proceed jointly, this is called the joint progression. {M.53}
“ ‘Now, dear Puṣkarasārin, I will speak about the celestial bodies. [F.252.b] Listen! They are Śukra, Bṛhaspati, Śanaiścara, Budha, Aṅgāraka, Rāhu, Ketu,196 the sun, and the moon.
“ ‘As the world thus turns,197 how long are the days and nights during the assigned asterisms? It is said that in the second month of winter, in the Rohiṇī asterism, on the eighth day, the day has twelve muhūrtas and the night has eighteen muhūrtas. In the last month of summer, in the Rohiṇī asterism, on the eighth day, the day has eighteen muhūrtas and the night has twelve muhūrtas. In the last month of the rainy season, in the Rohiṇī asterism, on the eighth day, the day has fourteen muhūrtas and the night has sixteen muhūrtas.’
“ ‘On the daytime of a day.’
“ ‘When does a lunar fortnight {M.54} begin?’
“ ‘From pratipad.’
“ ‘When does a year begin?’
“ ‘When do the seasons begin?’
“ ‘With the rainy season.’199
“ ‘Dear Triśaṅku, what is the duration of a kṣaṇa? What is that of a lava?200 What is that of a muhūrta?’
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, the time it takes for a woman to make one spin on a spinning wheel, neither too long nor too short—such is the duration of a tatkṣaṇa. One hundred twenty201 of such tatkṣaṇas make one kṣaṇa. Sixty202 kṣaṇas make one lava. Thirty203 lavas make one muhūrta. And by this sequence one day and night consists of thirty muhūrtas.
“ ‘The names of the muhūrtas are as follows. When the sun rises and the shadow measures ninety-six204 human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Caturojā. When the shadow measures sixty human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Śveta. When the shadow measures twelve human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Samṛddha. [F.253.a] When the shadow measures six human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Śarapatha. {M.55} When the shadow measures five human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Atisamṛddhi. When the shadow measures four human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Udgata. When the shadow measures three human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Sumukha. At noon it is the muhūrta called Vajraka. Right after, it is the muhūrta called Rākṣasa. In the afternoon, when the shadow measures three205 human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Rohita. When the shadow measures four human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Bala. When the shadow measures five human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Vijaya. When the shadow measures six human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Sarvarasa. When the shadow measures twelve human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Vasu. When the shadow measures sixty206 human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Sundara. When the sun sets and the shadow measures ninety-six human lengths, it is the muhūrta called Parabhaya. These are the muhūrtas during daytime.
“ ‘Now, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the muhūrtas during nighttime. When the sun has set, it is the muhūrta called Raudra. Then it is the muhūrta called Tārāvacara,207 then the muhūrta called Saṃyama, {M.56} then the muhūrta called Sāṃpraiyaka, then the muhūrta called Ananta,208 then the muhūrta called Gardabha, and then the muhūrta called Rākṣasa.209 [F.253.b] At midnight it is the muhūrta called Avayava. After the passing of midnight it is the muhūrta called Brahmā. Then it is the muhūrta called Diti, then the muhūrta called Arka, then the muhūrta called Vidhamana, then the muhūrta called Āgneya, then the muhūrta called Ātapāgni, and then the muhūrta called Abhijit. These are the muhūrtas during nighttime.
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, these are the thirty muhūrtas that are known to make a day and a night.
“ ‘As regards tatkṣaṇa, kṣaṇa,210 lava, and muhūrta, a thirtieth part of a muhūrta is a lava. A sixtieth part of a lava is a kṣaṇa. A hundred-and-twentieth part of a kṣaṇa is a tatkṣaṇa. And the time it takes for a woman to make one spin on the spinning wheel, neither too long nor too short, is the duration of a tatkṣaṇa. A hundred-and-twenty tatkṣaṇas make one kṣaṇa. Sixty211 kṣaṇas make one lava. Thirty212 lavas make one muhūrta. By this sequence, thirty muhūrtas make one day and night. Thirty days and nights make one month. Twelve months make one year. Caturojā, Śveta, Samṛddha, Śarapatha,213 Atisamṛddhi, Udgata, {M.57} Sumukha, Vajraka, Rohita, Bala, Vijaya, Sarvarasa, Vasu, Sundara, Parabhaya, Raudra, Tārāvacara, Saṃyama, Sāṃpraiyaka, Ananta, Gardabha, Rākṣasa, Avayava, Brahmā, Diti, Arka, Vidhamana, Āgneya, Ātapāgni, and Abhijit—these are the names of the muhūrtas.
“ ‘How is time measured? It is said that two blinks of the eye make one lava. Eight lavas make one kāṣṭhā. Sixteen kāṣṭhās make one kalā. Thirty kalās make one nāḍikā. And two nāḍikās make one muhūrta. [F.254.a]
“ ‘How is a nāḍikā measured? It is said that one takes a bucket containing two hundred palas215 of water. How big is the hole for the tube? It is the size of one gold coin. On it one places a golden tube that is four fingers long. {M.58} The circumference should be completely round from all four corners. When the water has thus gone out of the vessel, one nāḍikā has elapsed. By this measurement of a nāḍikā, two individual nāḍikās make one muhūrta. By this, dear brahmin, thirty muhūrtas make one day and night.
“ ‘So sixteen blinks of the eye make one kāṣṭhā.216 Sixteen kāṣṭhās make one kalā. Sixty-four217 kalās make one muhūrta. Thirty muhūrtas make one day and night. Thirty days and nights make one month. Twelve months make one year, which thus measures 165,888,000 blinks of the eye. By this, brahmin, the derivation of time has been explained.
“ ‘Please listen, brahmin, to the derivation of the krośa and the yojana.218 Seven paramāṇu make one aṇu. Seven aṇus appear as the minutest of all, an airborne dust particle. Seven such dust particles make one speck of dirt on a hare. Seven specks of dirt on a hare make one speck of dirt on a sheep. Seven specks of dirt on a sheep make one speck of dirt on a cow. Seven specks of dirt on a cow make one louse egg.219 Seven louse eggs make one louse. Seven lice make one grain of barley. Seven grains of barley make one finger width.220 Twelve finger widths make a hand span. Two hand spans make one cubit. Four cubits make one bow. One thousand bows make one krośa. Four krośas make one Magadhan yojana.221 {M.59} The length of 24,290,001,200,000222 paramāṇus is the measure of a yojana.
“ ‘Please listen, brahmin, to the derivation of the measure of weight for gold. [F.254.b] Twelve grains of barley make one māṣaka. Sixteen māṣakas make one karṣa. The weight of gold is thereby assessed. One karṣa weighs as much as 20,025,508223 paramāṇus. This, brahmin, is the derivation of the measure of weight for gold.
“ ‘Please listen, brahmin, to the derivation of the measure of weight of a pala. Sixty-four māṣakas is the weight of one Magadhan pala. With Magadhan scales the weight of a pala is thus assessed. The weight of 84,707,280224 paramāṇus, brahmin, is the measure of weight of a pala.
“ ‘Please listen, brahmin, to the derivation of the measure for liquids. Twenty-four palas make one Magadhan prastha, the measure for liquids. With Magadhan scales the measure of a prastha is thus assessed. The weight of 2,032,974,720225 {M.60} paramāṇus, brahmin, is the derivation of the measure for liquids.
“ ‘Please listen, brahmin, to the derivation of the measure for grains. Twenty-nine palas and one karṣa226 make one Magadhan prastha, the measure for grains. With Magadhan scales the measure of a prastha is thus assessed. The weight of 1,588,261,530227 paramāṇus, brahmin, is the measure for grains.’
“ ‘Now, dear Triśaṅku, please deliver the lecture on prognostication on the basis of the asterisms.’
“ ‘Well then, dear brahmin, let me set forth the lecture on prognostication on the basis of the asterisms. Please listen. {M.61}
“ ‘Brahmin, a person born under Kṛttikā will be reputable. A person born under Rohiṇī will have good fortune and prosperity. A person born under Mṛgaśirā will be disposed to fighting.228 [F.255.a] A person born under Ārdrā will be a fountain of food and drink.229 A person born under Punarvasu will be a farmer and cowherd. A person born under Puṣya will be of ethical conduct. A person born under Aśleṣā will be lustful and enthusiastic.230 A person born under Maghā will be intelligent and great hearted.231 A person born under Pūrvaphalgunī will have a short life. A person born under Uttaraphalgunī will practice fasting and be intent on heaven. A person born under Hasta will be a thief. A person born under Citrā will be expert in dancing and singing and will know how to wear adornments.232 A person born under Svātī will be proficient in calculations and could be a minister of finance. A person born under Viśākhā will be in service of the king. A person born under Anurādhā will be a merchant involved in merchandise. A person born under Jyeṣṭhā will have a short life233 and little wealth. A person born under Mūlā will have sons and be reputable. A person born under Pūrvāṣāḍhā will be a spiritual practitioner. A person born under Uttarāṣāḍhā will be of high descent and a lord of votaries. A person born under Abhijit will be a famous person. A person born under Śravaṇā {M.62} will be honored by the king. A person born under Dhaniṣṭhā will be wealthy and rich.234 A person born under Śatabhiṣā will be a mūlika.235 A person born under Pūrvabhādrapadā will be a leader of robbers. A person born under Uttarabhādrapadā will have a pleasant fragrance and will be a musician.236 A person born under Revatī will be a boatman. A person born under Aśvinī will trade in horses. A person born under Bharaṇī will be an executioner.
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on prognostication on the basis of the asterisms.’
“ ‘Now, dear Triśaṅku, please deliver the lecture on predictions on the basis of the asterisms.’
“ ‘Well then, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the lecture on predictions on the basis of the asterisms. Please listen.
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on predictions on the basis of the asterisms.
“ ‘Now, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the lecture on the abodes of the asterisms. Please listen.249
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, Kṛttikā is the asterism of the people of Kaliṅga and Magadha. Rohiṇī is the asterism of all people. Mṛgaśirā is the asterism of the people of Videha and of royal servants, as are Ārdrā, Punarvasu, and Puṣya.250 Aśleṣā is the asterism of nāgas251 and the people of the Himālayas. Maghā is the asterism of the people of Gauḍa.252 Pūrvaphalgunī is the asterism of thieves. Uttaraphalgunī is the asterism of the people of Avantī. Hastā is the asterism of the people of Surāṣṭra. Citrā is the asterism of birds and bipeds. Svātī is the asterism of all who have gone forth. [F.257.a] Viśākhā is the asterism of those who live by the water. Anurādhā is the asterism of merchants and carters. Jyeṣṭhā is the asterism of doorkeepers. {M.68} Mūlā is the asterism of caravan leaders.253 Pūrvāṣāḍhā is the asterism of the Bāhlīkas. Uttarāṣāḍhā is the asterism of the people of Kamboja. Abhijit is the asterism of the people of the southern region and the people of Tāmraparṇa. Śravaṇā is the asterism of gamblers254 and thieves. Dhaniṣṭhā is the asterism of the people of Kuru and those of Pañcāla. Śatabhiṣā is the asterism of maulikas255 and Atharvavedins. Pūrvabhādrapadā is the asterism of the people of Gandhāra and the asterism of Yavanas and the people of Kamboja. Uttarabhādrapadā is the asterism of gandharvas. Revatī is the asterism of boatmen. Aśvinī is the asterism of horse traders. And Bharaṇī is the asterism of the people of Bharukaccha.256
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on the abodes of the asterisms.’
“ ‘Well then, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me speak on the rains in the season. Please listen.257
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Kṛttikā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. It will rain for ten days. If the first raindrops of the rainy period fall during Pūrvabhādrapadā and Uttarabhādrapadā in conjunction with Śravaṇā, it will bring forth rains afterward.258 And in the winter season and the hot season {M.69} there will be three risks: the peril of fires, the peril of arms, and the peril of floods. This is said of rains under Kṛttikā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Rohiṇī in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of twenty-one āḍhakas. The lower lands should be cultivated then, and the higher lands should be left alone. The rainy season will be an impediment to the pith, but it will fully yield crops. Two diseases will be predominant: stomach sickness and eye disease. And the regions will have many thieves. This is said of rains under Rohiṇī. [F.257.b]
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Mṛgaśirā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. The rainy season will be an impediment to the pith, but it will bring forth rain afterward. {M.70} Kings will lay down their arms. Regions will be at peace and well governed, and the populace will be joyous. This is said of rains under Mṛgaśirā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Ārdrā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of eighteen āḍhakas. The lower lands should be cultivated then, the higher lands should be left alone, and treasuries should be guarded. The regions will have many thieves, and kings will lay down their arms. Three diseases will be predominant: fever, difficult breathing, and a constricted throat. Infants and children will die. This is said of rains under Ārdrā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Punarvasu in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of ninety āḍhakas. It will give rise to great rainclouds. When it has entered the month of Āṣāḍha,259 it will rain mildly, but it will rain incessantly and without interruption, and kings will lay down their arms. This is said of rains under Punarvasu. {M.71}
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Puṣya in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of thirty-two āḍhakas. The lower lands should be cultivated then, and the higher lands should be left alone. There will certainly be heavy rains, and it will fully yield crops. Brahmins and kṣatriyas will come into conflict. Tuskers will be predominant, and there will be three sicknesses: boils, pustules, and scabs. This is said of rains under Puṣya.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Aśleṣā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of twenty-one āḍhakas. The lower lands should be cultivated then, and the higher lands should be left alone. Rough winds will blow, and at that time kings who know will be agitated. Its rain will fully yield all crops. Wives and husbands,260 kings and ministers, will come into conflict. This is said of rains under Aśleṣā. [F.258.a]
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Maghā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. {M.72} The rains will fully yield all crops. Wild animals, birds, cattle, and people will have miscarriages, and at that time people will die. This is said of rains under Maghā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Pūrvaphalgunī in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four261 āḍhakas. The rains will fully yield all crops, but after producing that harvest, the people will be oppressed by an enemy army and will not enjoy it happily. At that time, the pregnancies of cattle and people will not go well.262 This is said of rains under Pūrvaphalgunī.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Uttaraphalgunī in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of eighty263 āḍhakas. The rains will fully yield all crops, and at that time kings will lay down their arms. Brahmins and kṣatriyas will come into conflict, and people without proper conduct will quickly go to ruin. This is said of rains under Uttaraphalgunī.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Hastā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of forty-nine264 āḍhakas. {M.73} The gods will then quit. People will have failed crops with no juice in them and that do not stand high, and have little pith and water. At that time there will be a famine. This is said of rains under Hastā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Citrā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. There will be an impediment to the pith, but afterward it will bring forth rain. Kings will lay down their arms, and at that time the populace will be joyous. This is said of rains under Citrā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Svātī in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of twenty-one āḍhakas. Kings will lay down their arms, and at that time there will be more powerful thieves. This is said of rains under Svātī.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Viśākhā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of eighty265 āḍhakas. [F.258.b] {M.74} The rains will fully yield all crops, and at that time kings will have weaknesses.266 Wildfires will become widespread, and even strong tuskers will perish. This is said of rains under Viśākhā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Anurādhā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty āḍhakas. The rains will fully yield all crops, and at that time the leaves will be solid.267 This is said of rains under Anurādhā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Jyeṣṭhā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixteen āḍhakas. Agricultural activities should then be suspended.268 Yoke straps should be avoided, and one should hold back one’s grains and refrain from fires. Ploughs should be withheld. The country will certainly go to ruin. It will be oppressed by an enemy army. This is said of rains under Jyeṣṭhā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Mūlā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. {M.75} The rains will fully yield crops. At that time the regions will have many thieves, and three diseases will be strong: gout, pleurisy, and eye disease. Flowers and fruits will flourish, and kings will lay down their arms. This is said of rains under Mūlā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Pūrvāṣāḍhā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty269 āḍhakas. There will be two seizures then, during the lunar fortnight in either the month of Proṣṭhapada270 or the month of Aśvayuja. The rains will fully yield all crops, and two illnesses will be predominant then: stomach sickness and eye disease. This is said of rains under Pūrvāṣāḍhā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Uttarāṣāḍhā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of a full hundred āḍhakas. The higher lands should then be cultivated, and the lower lands should be left alone. At that time great streams will flow; the highest amount of water rains down then, yielding all crops. Three illnesses will be predominant: boils, pustules, and throat disease. This is said of rains under Uttarāṣāḍhā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Abhijit in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. {M.76} It will rain all over the country, and afterward the rains will bring forth crops. There will be an upsurge of water animals. This is said of rains under Abhijit.271
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Śravaṇā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. It will rain all over the country, and afterward the rains will fully yield crops. [F.259.a] There will be an upsurge of water animals. People will have many diseases, and kings will mete out severe punishments. This is said of rains under Śravaṇā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Dhaniṣṭhā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of fifty-one272 āḍhakas. It will rain in portions. The lower lands should be cultivated then, and the higher lands should be left alone. The rains will be awful at night. They will fully yield crops. One disease will be predominant, namely, the disease of boils, and kings will keep hold of their arms. This is said of rains under Dhaniṣṭhā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Śatabhiṣā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixteen āḍhakas.273 {M.77} The lower lands should be cultivated then, and the higher lands should be left alone. The rains will fully yield all crops. The country will be overrun by armies, and people and children will go abroad in groups. This is said of rains under Śatabhiṣā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Pūrvabhādrapadā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-four āḍhakas. At the start of the rains there will be drought for nineteen274 nights. Flowers and crops will perish, and during that rainy season there will be many thieves. There will be two epidemics: first a bilious and hot fever, and afterward a powerful eclipse. At that time men and women will die. This is said of rains under Pūrvabhādrapadā.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Uttarabhādrapadā in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of a full hundred āḍhakas. Great streams will flow. Villages, cities, and towns will be flooded by streams.275 Four diseases will be predominant: stomach sickness, eye disease, {M.78} cough, and fever. Infants and children will die. The higher lands should be cultivated then, and the lower lands should be left alone.276 The rains will fully yield flowers and fruits. This is said of rains under Uttarabhādrapadā. [F.259.b]
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Revatī in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of sixty-one277 āḍhakas. The lower lands should be cultivated then, and the higher lands should be left alone. The rains will fully yield all crops. Kings will lay down their arms, friends and relatives will enjoy the crops that are harvested, and the country will be untroubled.278 The country will be committed to the gods and the asterisms.279 Friends will be committed. This is said of rains under Revatī.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Aśvinī in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of forty-eight āḍhakas. It will rain in the middle of the rainy season. The lower lands should be cultivated then, and the higher lands should be left alone. The second rains will fully yield all crops.280 {M.79} At that time, the country will be given to fears,281 and thieves will be rampant. This is said of rains under Aśvinī.
“ ‘When it begins to rain under Bharaṇī in the last month of the hot season, there will be rainfall of a full hundred āḍhakas. The higher lands should be cultivated then, and the lower lands should be left alone. There will be famine, and people will die of old age. Kings will wage war with one another, and there will be strife between sons and grandsons.282 This is said of rains under Bharaṇī.
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on the rains in the season.
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, let me explain the effects of seizures by Rāhu during these asterisms.
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, when there is a lunar eclipse under Kṛttikā, the people of Kaliṅga and of Magadha are stricken. When there is a lunar eclipse under Rohiṇī, all people are stricken. When there is a lunar eclipse under Mṛgaśirā, the people of Videha and royal servants are stricken, likewise under Ārdrā, Punarvasu, and Puṣya. When there is a lunar eclipse under Aśleṣā, nāgas and the people of the Himālayas are stricken. When there is a lunar eclipse under Maghā, [F.260.a] the people of Gauḍa are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Pūrvaphalgunī, thieves are stricken. {M.80} When the moon is eclipsed under Uttaraphalgunī, the people of Avantī are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Hastā, the people of Surāṣṭra are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Citrā, birds and bipeds are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Svātī, all who have gone forth are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Viśākhā, the people living by the water are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Anurādhā, merchants and carters are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Jyeṣṭhā, doorkeepers are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Mūlā, travelers are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Pūrvāṣāḍhā, the people of Avantī are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Uttarāṣāḍhā, the people of Kamboja are stricken, as are the Bāhlīkas. When the moon is eclipsed under Abhijit, the people of the southern region and the people of Tāmraparṇa are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Śravaṇā, thieves and gamblers are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Dhaniṣṭhā, the people of Kuru and those of Pañcāla are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Śatabhiṣā, maulikas and Atharvavedins are stricken.283 When the moon is eclipsed under Pūrvabhādrapadā, the people of Gandhāra, the Yavanas, and the people of Kamboja are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Uttarabhādrapadā, {M.81} musicians are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Revatī, boatmen are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Aśvinī, horse traders are stricken. When the moon is eclipsed under Bharaṇī, the people of Bharukaccha are stricken. [F.260.b] Thus, dear Puṣkarasārin, each locality is stricken under the asterism in which a lunar eclipse takes place.284
“ ‘Now, please listen to how the activities for each asterism are prescribed in the treatises.285
“ ‘This is to be done under Pūrvaphalgunī.
“ ‘This is to be done under Uttaraphalgunī. {M.88}
“ ‘This is to be done under Pūrvāṣāḍhā.
“ ‘This is to be done under Uttarāṣāḍhā.
“ ‘This is to be done under Pūrvabhādrapadā. {M.96}
“ ‘This is to be done under Uttarabhādrapadā.
“ ‘Thus I have given the lecture on the activities during the asterisms.
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, there are four stable asterisms. Let me explain them. Please listen. They are the three Uttaras298 and Rohiṇī. One lives safely then. {M.99} At that time one should plant seeds, build one’s house, and anoint the king. One should do those other activities that one has spoken about. [F.265.a]
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, there are four swift asterisms: Puṣya, Hastā, Abhijit, and Aśvinī. Under them a discerning person should do swift actions. One should recite the Vedas, perform mantras, depart and live abroad, and use cows and horses. At that time one should do all actions related to yoked animals, plants, and medicinal treatment. One should undertake an offering ritual for four months. Then, whether there is loss, distress, or injury, one will become well—so it should be said.
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, there are five harsh asterisms:
“ ‘So it should be said. There are six that start their conjunction with the moon at midnight: Ārdrā, Aśleṣā, Svātī, Jyeṣṭhā, {M.100} Śatabhiṣā, and Bharaṇī. They have nine parts, six segments, and two areas. Rohiṇī, Punarvasu, Viśākhā, and the three Uttaras302 are the ones that have two parts and fifteen areas. Kṛttikā, Maghā, Mūlā, and the three Pūrvas are the six that start their conjunction with the moon in the morning. Mṛgaśirā, Puṣya, Hastā, Citrā, Anurādhā, Śravaṇā, Dhaniṣṭhā, Revatī, and Aśvinī are the nine asterisms that start their conjunction with the moon in the afternoon, forming areas with a duration of thirty muhūrtas. Abhijit forms an area of five parts with a duration of an equal number of muhūrtas.303
“ ‘Moreover, brahmin, there are auspicious muhūrtas, there are inauspicious muhūrtas, and there are muhūrtas that are both auspicious and inauspicious.304 During the occurrence of an auspicious muhūrta under an asterism, the asterism is resplendent. [F.265.b] During the occurrence of an inauspicious muhūrta, the asterism is not resplendent.305 During the occurrence of a muhūrta that is both auspicious and inauspicious, it is average.
“ ‘Regarding the shortening and lengthening of day and night, the following is said: When during the first month of the rainy season there is the Puṣya asterism on the new moon and Śravaṇā on the full moon, the day has eighteen muhūrtas and the night has twelve muhūrtas.306 The sun descends at noon with a stick of sixteen fingers casting a shadow of half a finger.307 Āṣāḍhā308 leads the night, and the sun disappears under Mṛgaśirā.
“ ‘When during the second month of the rainy season there is Maghā on the new moon and Bhādrapadā309 on the full moon, the day has seventeen muhūrtas and the night has thirteen muhūrtas.310 {M.101} The sun descends at a shadow of two fingers. Śravaṇā leads the night, and the sun disappears under Puṣya.
“ ‘When during the third month of the rainy season there is Phalgunī on the new moon and Aśvinī on the full moon, the day has sixteen muhūrtas and the night has fourteen muhūrtas.311 The sun descends at a shadow of four fingers.312 Pūrvabhādrapadā leads the night, and the sun disappears under Maghā.
“ ‘When during the fourth month of the rainy season there is Citrā on the new moon and Kṛttikā on the full moon, the day has fifteen muhūrtas and the night has fifteen muhūrtas.313 The sun descends at a shadow of six fingers.314 Aśvinī leads the night, and the sun disappears under Phalgunī.
“ ‘When during the first month of winter there is Anurādhā on the new moon and Mṛgaśirā on the full moon, the day has fourteen muhūrtas and the night has sixteen muhūrtas.315 The sun descends at a shadow of eight fingers.316 Kṛttikā leads the night, and the sun disappears under Citrā.
“ ‘When during the second month of winter there is Jyeṣṭhā on the new moon and Puṣya on the full moon, [F.266.a] the day has thirteen muhūrtas and the night has seventeen muhūrtas.317 The sun descends at a shadow of ten fingers.318 Mṛgaśirā leads the night, and the sun disappears under Viśākhā. {M.102}
“ ‘When during the third month of winter there is Pūrvāṣāḍhā on the new moon and Maghā on the full moon, the day has twelve muhūrtas and the night has eighteen muhūrtas.319 The sun descends at a shadow of twelve fingers.320 Puṣya leads the night, and the sun comes up under Jyeṣṭhā.
“ ‘When during the fourth month of winter there is Śravaṇā on the new moon and Phalgunī on the full moon, the day has thirteen muhūrtas and the night has seventeen muhūrtas.321 The sun descends at a shadow of ten fingers.322 Maghā leads the night, and the sun comes up under Āṣāḍhā.323
“ ‘When during the first month of the hot season there is Uttarabhādrapadā on the new moon and Citrā on the full moon, the day has fourteen muhūrtas and the night has sixteen muhūrtas.324 {M.103} The sun descends at a shadow of eight fingers.325 Phalgunī leads the night,326 and the sun comes up under Śravaṇā.
“ ‘When during the second month of the hot season there is Aśvinī on the new moon and Viśākhā on the full moon, the day has fifteen muhūrtas and the night has fifteen muhūrtas.327 The sun descends at a shadow of six fingers.328 Citrā leads the night, and the sun comes up in Uttarabhādrapadā.329
“ ‘When during the third month of the hot season there is Kṛttikā on the new moon and Jyeṣṭhā on the full moon, the day has sixteen muhūrtas and the night has fourteen muhūrtas.330 The sun descends at a shadow of four fingers.331 Viśākhā332 leads the night, and the sun comes up in Kṛttikā.
“ ‘When during the fourth month of the hot season there is Mṛgaśirā on the new moon and Uttarāṣāḍhā on the full moon,333 [F.266.b] the day has seventeen muhūrtas and the night has thirteen muhūrtas.334 At noon the sun begins its descent at a shadow of two fingers.335 Jyeṣṭhā336 leads the night, and the sun comes up in Puṣya.
“ ‘Examining the whole year, all these asterisms are, according to their differences in muhūrtas, divided into divisions and subdivisions according to their conjunction with the new moon and the full moon, and it should be gathered whether it lacks a period (ūnarātra) or is complete with nights (pūrṇarātra). Then in the third year an intercalary month is added.337 In the sixth month the days and nights are the same. For six months the day increases, and for six months the night {M.104} increases. For six months the day becomes less, month by month. For six months the night becomes less, month by month. In the sixth month the muhūrtas are the same.
“ ‘For six months the sun descends and moves to the north, and for six months it moves to the south. For six months the measure of water in the ocean increases and decreases.338 According to the course of the sun and the course of the moon, the water in the ocean339 and time increases. At this, one calculates, observes, and recalls—thus is this year set forth.
“ ‘The moon, the sun, Rāhu, Śukra,340 Bṛhaspati, Śanaiścara, Aṅgāraka, and Budha341—these are the planets. Among them, Bṛhaspati remains constant for the entire year.342 Thus, Śanaiścara, Budha, Aṅgāraka, and Śukra move in circles.
“ ‘Bharaṇī, Kṛttikā, Rohiṇī, and Mṛgaśirā—this is the first general circle. Ārdrā, Punarvasu, Puṣya, and Aśleṣā—this is the second general circle. Maghā, the two Phalgunīs, Hastā, and Citrā—this is the third general circle. Svātī, Viśākhā, and Anurādhā—this is the fourth general circle. Jyeṣṭhā, Mūlā, {M.105} and the two Āṣāḍhās,343 which are all harbingers of great perils—this is the fifth circle. Dhaniṣṭhā, Śatabhiṣā, the two Bhādrapadās, Revatī, Aśvinī, and Bharaṇī—this is the sixth general circle.344 [F.267.a] Whatever circle of asterisms presses on these planets during the year, it is the populace or beings connected with that asterism who are stricken—so it should be stated.
345“ ‘There are twelves muhūrtas during the day that are stable, and twelve during the night. Six muhūrtas fluctuate. Which six? Nairṛta, Varuṇa, Vāyava, Bhargodeva, Raudra, and Vicārin—these are the six that fluctuate.346
“ ‘In the whole month of Śrāvaṇa, when daytime consists of eighteen347 muhūrtas, at sunrise it is the muhūrta called Caturojas. Noon is between the muhūrtas Rohita and the muhūrta Bala.348 At sunset it is the muhūrta called Vicārin. In the night, which consists of twelve349 muhūrtas, at the sixth muhūrta, after the sun has set, it is the muhūrta called Nayamanas. At the end of the night it is the muhūrta called Ātapāgni.
“ ‘In the whole month of Bhādrapada,350 when daytime consists of seventeen351 muhūrtas, at sunrise it is the muhūrta called Caturojas. At noon it is the muhūrta called Abhijita. {M.106} At sunset it is the muhūrta called Raudra . In the night, which consists of thirteen352 muhūrtas, when the sun has just set, it is the muhūrta called Vicārin. At midnight it is the muhūrta called Mahābhaya.353 At the end of the night it is the muhūrta called Ātapāgni.
“ ‘In the whole month of Aśvayuja, when daytime consists of sixteen354 muhūrtas, at sunrise it is the muhūrta called Caturojas. Noon is between the muhūrta called Samudgata and the muhūrta called Abhijita. At sunset it is the muhūrta called Bhargodeva. In the night, which consists of fourteen355 muhūrtas, when the sun has just set, it is the muhūrta called Raudra. Midnight is between the muhūrta Abhijita and the muhūrta Bhīṣamāṇa. At the end of the night it is the muhūrta called Ātapāgni.
“ ‘In the whole month of Kārttika,356 [F.267.b] when day and night have equal length, with daytime consisting of fifteen muhūrtas and the night consisting of fifteen muhūrtas, at sunrise it is the muhūrta called Caturojas. At noon it is the muhūrta called Saṃmukha. At sunset it is the muhūrta called Santata. {M.107} In the night, when the sun has just set, it is the muhūrta called Bhargodeva. At midnight it is the muhūrta called Abhijita. At the end of the night it is the muhūrta called Ātapāgni.
“ ‘In the whole month of Mārgaśīrṣa,357 when daytime consists of fourteen muhūrtas, at sunrise it is the muhūrta called Caturojas. Noon is in between the muhūrtas Virata358 and Saṃmukha. At sunset it is the muhūrta called Varuṇa. In the night, which consists of sixteen muhūrtas, when the sun has just set, it is the muhūrta called Saṃtāna.359 Midnight is in between the muhūrtas Rākṣasa and Abhijita. At the end of the night360 it is the muhūrta called Ātapāgni.
“ ‘In the whole month of Pauṣa,361 when daytime consists of thirteen muhūrtas, at sunrise it is the muhūrta called Caturojas. At noon it is the muhūrta called Virata.362 At sunset it is the muhūrta called Nairṛta. In the night, which consists of seventeen muhūrtas, when the sun has just set, it is the muhūrta called Varuṇa. At midnight it is the muhūrta called Rākṣasa. At the end of the night363 it is the muhūrta called Ātapāgni.
“ ‘In the whole month of Māgha,364 when daytime consists of eighteen muhūrtas, at sunrise it is the muhūrta called Caturojas. Noon is in between the muhūrtas Sāvitra365 and Virata.366 At sunset it is the muhūrta called Vijaya.367 In the nighttime, which consists of eighteen muhūrtas, when the sun has just set, [F.268.a] it is the muhūrta called Nairṛta. Midnight is in between the muhūrtas Gardabha and Rākṣasa. At the end of the night,368 it is the muhūrta called Ātapāgni. {M.108}
“ ‘As it is in Śrāvaṇa, so it is in Māgha. As it is in Bhādrapada, so it is in Phālguna. As it is in Aśvayuja, so it is in Caitra. As it is in Kārttika, so it is in Vaiśākha. As it is in Mārgaśīrṣa, so it is in Jyaiṣṭha. As it is in Pauṣa, so it is in Āṣāḍha.369 In this way one should know the course and movement of the asterisms.370 This is the first lecture on the movement of the asterisms.
“ ‘In between the asterisms one should add or subtract according to night and day. As the day either decreases or increases, or whether it is for the entire month or half a month, on the second, sixth, ninth, twelfth, and fourteenth371 the day increases by a kalā, and the night decreases by a kalā.372
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on predictions regarding earthquakes.421
“ ‘Now, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the lecture on the occurrence of illness under the twenty-eight asterisms. Please listen.
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on the occurrence of illness.445
“ ‘Now, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the lecture on imprisonment and release. Please listen. {M.129}
“ ‘Dear Puṣkarasārin, it should be said that if one is chained or imprisoned under Kṛttikā, one will be released after three days. If one is chained or imprisoned under Rohiṇī, one will be released after three days. If one is chained or imprisoned under Mṛgaśirā, one will be released after twenty-one days.446 If one is chained or imprisoned under Ārdrā, one will be released after half a month; if chained or imprisoned under Punarvasu, after seven days; under Puṣya, after three days; under Aśleṣā, after thirty days;447 under Maghā, after sixteen days; under Pūrvaphalgunī, after ten days; under Uttaraphalgunī, after seven days; under Hastā, after five days; under Citrā, after seven days; under Svātī, after ten days;448 under Viśākhā, after twenty-six days; under Anurādhā, after thirty-one days;449 under Jyeṣṭhā, after eighteen days;450 under Mūlā, after thirty-six days;451 under Pūrvāṣāḍhā, after fourteen days; [F.274.a] under Uttarāṣāḍhā, after fourteen days; under Abhijit, after six days;452 under Śravaṇā, after five days; under Dhaniṣṭhā, after twenty-eight days; under Śatabhiṣā, after eighteen days; under Pūrvabhādrapadā, after some time; under Uttarabhādrapadā, after thirteen days; under Revatī, after fourteen days;453 and under Aśvinī, after three days. It should be said that if one is chained or imprisoned under Bharaṇī, one will be released after three days.
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on imprisonment and release.
“ ‘Now, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the lecture on birthmarks. Please listen.454
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on birthmarks.
“ ‘Now, dear Puṣkarasārin, let me set forth the lecture on the qualities of being born under an asterism.462 Please listen.
“ ‘This, dear Puṣkarasārin, is the lecture on the qualities of being born under an asterism.471 {M.203}
“ ‘Moreover, great brahmin, I can veridically turn this mind to recollecting, knowing, and directly realizing past lives. I can fully recollect numerous past lives.
“ ‘You may be having doubts or uncertainty, brahmin, thinking it was someone else who at that time, at that moment, was Brahmā, preeminent among gods. But it should not be seen in this way. It was I who, at that time, at that moment, was Brahmā, preeminent among gods. Then, having passed away, I was Indra Kauśika. Then, having passed away, I was the brahmin Araṇemi Gautama. Then, having passed away, I was the great sage named Śvetaketu. Then, having passed away, I was the paṇḍita Śuka. It was I who then divided the Vedas into four, {M.204} namely, Puṣya of the Ṛgveda branch, Paṅkti of the Sāmaveda branch, the twenty-one schools of the Yajurveda branch, and Kratu of the Atharvaveda branch.
“ ‘You may be having doubts or uncertainty, brahmin, thinking it was someone else who at that time, at that moment, was the great sage named Vasu. But it should not be seen in this way. It was I who, at that time, at that moment, was the great sage named Vasu. It was I who obtained Takṣaka’s maiden daughter as my wife. Having become completely impassioned, I lost my miraculous power and strayed from the meditative absorptions. I reproached myself and on that occasion uttered the verse:
Tatsavitur vareṇyaṃ bhargo devasya dhīmahi |
Dhiyo yo naḥ pracodayāt ||
“ ‘Therefore I say to you, brahmin, that it is a mere commonplace notion of people to speak of “brahmin,” “kṣatriya,” “vaiśya,” or “śūdra.” This is in fact one—all this is one and the same. So please grant your daughter Prakṛti as wife for my son Śārdūlakarṇa. I will bestow on you whatever dowry you have in mind.’ [F.276.a]
“Having heard these words from the outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin said:
“At this point, the five hundred brahmin youths loudly erupted in a great uproar: ‘Dear teacher, please do not approve of a matrimonial bond between brahmins learned in the Vedas and an outcaste! It is not proper, dear teacher, for brahmins learned in the Vedas to forge a matrimonial bond with an outcaste!’
“The brahmin Puṣkarasārin then reprimanded them, putting an end to the uproar, as he spoke on this matter with a verse:
473“When the brahmin Puṣkarasārin had put an end to the brahmin youths’ great uproar, he said to the outcaste king Triśaṅku, ‘This great man, dear Triśaṅku, made of the four great elements, has been arranged by Brahmā, lord of this Sahā world, of whom:
“ ‘Now, dear Triśaṅku, what has been said here? One must clearly examine the particular characteristic.474 They come into existence due to the deed that is done by a father and a mother; being enticed by the desire for pleasure…475
“Having been defeated there among the hundreds of brahmin youths by the greatly renowned outcaste king Triśaṅku, the brahmin Puṣkarasārin said, ‘A brahmin he is, the outcaste king named Triśaṅku.477 For you were Brahmā and Indra Kauśika. You were Araṇemi Gautama. You were Śvetaketu and the paṇḍita Śuka. The Vedas were promulgated as fourfold by you. You were the lord Vasu, the greatly renowned royal sage.
“Having taken a golden pitcher filled with water, the brahmin joyfully poured it out and offered his daughter with the water, declaring, ‘May this maiden Prakṛti be the wife of Śārdūlakarṇa.’478 [F.277.a]
“The outcaste king was overjoyed.479 After having arranged the marriage of his son, he returned to his city480 with renown and ruled over his kingdom according to the Dharma.481
“You may be having doubts or uncertainty, monks, or you may feel unsure, thinking it was someone else who at that time, at that moment, was the outcaste king named Triśaṅku. But it should not be seen in this way. It was I who at that time, at that moment, was the outcaste king named Triśaṅku. Monks, you may be thinking it was someone else who at that time, at that moment, was the outcaste prince named Śārdūlakarṇa. But it should not be seen in this way. It was the monk Ānanda who at that time, at that moment, was the outcaste prince named Śārdūlakarṇa. You may be thinking that it was someone else who at that time, at that moment, was the brahmin named Puṣkarasārin. But it should not be seen in this way. It was the monk Śāriputra who at that time, at that moment, was the brahmin named Puṣkarasārin. You may be thinking that it was someone else who at that time, at that moment, was the brahmin Puṣkarasārin’s maiden daughter named Prakṛti. But it should not be seen in this way. It was the nun Prakṛti who at that time, at that moment, was the brahmin Puṣkarasārin’s maiden daughter named Prakṛti. It is she who now, {M.209} because of that affection, because of that love, followed the monk Ānanda wherever he went, who stood behind Ānanda wherever he stood, standing silently at the door at whatever house he entered for alms.”
Then, in that connection, on that matter, on that occasion, the Blessed One spoke this verse:
“Therefore, monks, in order to directly realize the four truths of the noble ones that have not yet been directly realized, I call for utmost diligence and intense fervor.484 One should apply enthusiasm and undeterredness with mindfulness, full awareness, and heedfulness. [F.277.b] In order to swiftly485 and directly realize these four truths of the noble ones that have not yet been directly realized—the truth of the noble ones on suffering, the truth of noble ones on the origin of suffering, the truth of the noble ones on cessation, and the truth of the noble ones on the way leading to cessation—one should apply utmost intense fervor, diligence, effort, enthusiasm, and undeterredness with mindfulness, full awareness, and heedfulness.” {M.210}
When this discourse on the Dharma was being spoken, the minds of sixty monks were liberated from the contaminants, no longer clinging. And for many śrāvakas, brahmins, and householders there arose the dustless and stainless Dharma eye.486
This is what the Blessed One said.487 Elated, the monks, King Prasenajit of Kauśala, the people of Śrāvastī, and the world with its brahmins, householders, gods, nāgas, yakṣas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, and gandharvas rejoiced at what the Blessed One had spoken.488
This concludes the noble sūtra about Śārdūlakarṇa.
Colophon
Translated by the Indian preceptor-monk Ajitaśrībhadra and the chief editor-translator Sengkar monk Śākya Ö.
Abbreviations
| AN | Aṅguttara Nikāya. Pali Text Society edition. |
|---|---|
| BHSD | Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary by Franklin Edgerton. |
| DN | Dīgha Nikāya. Pali Text Society edition. |
| M | Mukhopadhyaya 1954. |
| MN | Majjhima Nikāya. Pali Text Society edition. |
| Sn | Suttanipāta. Pali Text Society edition. |
| Taishō | Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經. Edited by Takakusu Junjirō 高楠順次郎 and Watanabe Kaikyoku 渡邊海旭. 100 vols. Tokyo: Taishō issaikyō kankōkai 大正 一切經刊行會, 1924–35. |
Notes
Bibliography
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Mukhopadhyaya, Sujitkumar (1954). The Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna. Santiniketan: Visvabharati, 1954.
Mukhopadhyaya, Sujitkumar (1960). The Vajrasūcī of Aśvaghoṣa: A Study of the Sanskrit Text and Chinese Version. Revised second edition. Santiniketan: Visvabharati, 1960.
Mukhopadhyaya, Sujitkumar (1967). A Critical Study of the Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna: From the Brāhmaṇic Literary Sources. Visvabharati Annals, part 1; Humanities, vol. 12. Santiniketan: Visvabharati, 1967.
Sharma, Sharmistha. Astrological Lore in the Buddhist Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna. Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 1992.
Silk, Jonathan. “Indian Buddhist Attitudes toward Outcastes.” Indo-Iranian Journal 63 (2020): 128–87.
Strauch, Ingo. “The Evolution of the Buddhist Rakṣā Genre in the Light of New Evidence from Gandhāra: The *Manasvi-nāgarāja-sūtra from the Bajaur Collection of Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 77, no. 1 (2014): 63–84.
Zinkgräf, Willi. Vom Divyāvadāna zur Avadāna-Kalpalatā: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte eines Avadāna. Inaugural Dissertation. Heidelberg: Carl Winter’s Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1940.
Glossary
Types of attestation for names and terms of the corresponding source language
Attested in source text
This term is attested in a manuscript used as a source for this translation.
Attested in other text
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Attested in dictionary
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Approximate attestation
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Reconstruction from Tibetan phonetic rendering
This term is a reconstruction based on the Tibetan phonetic rendering of the term.
Reconstruction from Tibetan semantic rendering
This term is a reconstruction based on the semantics of the Tibetan translation.
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Ajitaśrībhadra
- a dzi ta shrI b+ha dra
- ཨ་ཛི་ཏ་ཤྲཱི་བྷ་དྲ།
- ajitaśrībhadra
Anāthapiṇḍada’s park
- mgon med zas sbyin gyi kun dga’ ra ba
- མགོན་མེད་ཟས་སྦྱིན་གྱི་ཀུན་དགའ་ར་བ།
- anāthapiṇḍadārāma AS
Araṇemi Gautama
- rtsib kyi mu khyud
- gau ta ma
- mnyes byed gau ta ma
- རྩིབ་ཀྱི་མུ་ཁྱུད།
- གཽ་ཏ་མ།
- མཉེས་བྱེད་གཽ་ཏ་མ།
- araṇemigautama AS
Ārṣṭiṣeṇa
- be ra brgyad pa
- a ra shi se na
- བེ་ར་བརྒྱད་པ།
- ཨ་ར་ཤི་སེ་ན།
- ārṣṭiṣeṇa AS
Aṣṭabhaginīya
- sring mo brgyad kyi rgyud
- སྲིང་མོ་བརྒྱད་ཀྱི་རྒྱུད།
- aṣṭabhaginīya AS
Ātapāgni
- me yis gdungs
- nyi mas gdungs
- tsha bas gdungs pa
- མེ་ཡིས་གདུངས།
- ཉི་མས་གདུངས།
- ཚ་བས་གདུངས་པ།
- ātapāgni AS
Bāhlīka
- ba lhi ba
- pa h+ni ka
- bi li kan pa
- བ་ལྷི་བ།
- པ་ཧྣི་ཀ
- བི་ལི་ཀན་པ།
- bāhlīka AS
banyan sap
- n+ya gro d+ha’i thang chu
- ནྱ་གྲོ་དྷའི་ཐང་ཆུ།
- nyāgrodhakaṣāya AS
Bharukaccha
- zhing bzang
- zhing las bzang po byed pa
- ཞིང་བཟང་།
- ཞིང་ལས་བཟང་པོ་བྱེད་པ།
- bharukaccha AS
bull-following progression
- khyu mchog gi ’jug pa
- ཁྱུ་མཆོག་གི་འཇུག་པ།
- ṛṣabhānusāriyoga AS
Caitra
- dpyid zla ’bring po
- sos ka’i zla ba gnyis pa
- དཔྱིད་ཟླ་འབྲིང་པོ།
- སོས་ཀའི་ཟླ་བ་གཉིས་པ།
- caitra AS
calf-following progression
- be’u’i ’jug pa
- བེའུའི་འཇུག་པ།
- vatsānusāriyoga AS
Dhyānadrāhyāyaṇīya
- nor rgyas kyi rgyud
- ནོར་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་རྒྱུད།
- dhyānadrāhyāyaṇīya AS
factors pertaining to awakening
- byang chub kyi phyogs kyi chos rnams
- བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་ཕྱོགས་ཀྱི་ཆོས་རྣམས།
- bodhipakṣa AS
fifth Veda of the epics
- bzhad gad zhes bya ba dang lnga pa
- བཞད་གད་ཞེས་བྱ་བ་དང་ལྔ་པ།
- itihāsapañcama AS
five higher knowledges
- mngon par shes pa lnga
- shes lnga
- མངོན་པར་ཤེས་པ་ལྔ།
- ཤེས་ལྔ།
- pañcābhijñā AS
Four Great Kings
- rgyal po chen po bzhi
- རྒྱལ་པོ་ཆེན་པོ་བཞི།
- caturmahārāja AS
four truths of the noble ones
- bden pa bzhi po
- བདེན་པ་བཞི་པོ།
- caturāryasatya AS
glossaries and ritual instructions
- nges par sbyar ba’i brda
- brda nges par sbyar ba
- ངེས་པར་སྦྱར་བའི་བརྡ།
- བརྡ་ངེས་པར་སྦྱར་བ།
- nighaṇṭakaiṭabha AS
great holder of spells
- rig sngags shes pa
- རིག་སྔགས་ཤེས་པ།
- mahāvidyādharin AS
Indra Kauśika
- lha’i dbang po kau shi ka
- ལྷའི་དབང་པོ་ཀཽ་ཤི་ཀ
- indrakauśika AS
Jetavana
- rgyal bu rgyal byed kyi tshal
- རྒྱལ་བུ་རྒྱལ་བྱེད་ཀྱི་ཚལ།
- jetavana AS
joint progression
- zung lhan cig tu ’jug pa
- ཟུང་ལྷན་ཅིག་ཏུ་འཇུག་པ།
- yuganaddhayoga AS
Kārttika
- ston zla tha chungs
- ston tha chungs
- སྟོན་ཟླ་ཐ་ཆུངས།
- སྟོན་ཐ་ཆུངས།
- kārttika AS
Kātyāyanīya
- yid can gyi rgyud
- nag pa ya na
- kA tyA ya na
- ཡིད་ཅན་གྱི་རྒྱུད།
- ནག་པ་ཡ་ན།
- ཀཱ་ཏྱཱ་ཡ་ན།
- kātyāyanīya AS
Laukākṣa
- ’jig rten gyi mig
- lo ka a kha
- འཇིག་རྟེན་གྱི་མིག
- ལོ་ཀ་ཨ་ཁ།
- laukākṣa AS
lord of this Sahā world
- mi mjed kyi bdag po
- མི་མཇེད་ཀྱི་བདག་པོ།
- sahāpati AS
Māgha
- dgun gyi zla ba gsum pa
- gdun zla tha chungs
- དགུན་གྱི་ཟླ་བ་གསུམ་པ།
- གདུན་ཟླ་ཐ་ཆུངས།
- māgha AS
Mahāyogika
- bzhon pa chen po dang ldan pa
- བཞོན་པ་ཆེན་པོ་དང་ལྡན་པ།
- mahāyogika AS
Pauṣa
- dgun ’bring
- dgun zla ’bring po
- dgun gyi zla ba gnyis pa
- དགུན་འབྲིང་།
- དགུན་ཟླ་འབྲིང་པོ།
- དགུན་གྱི་ཟླ་བ་གཉིས་པ།
- pauṣa AS
people of the southern region
- lho phyogs pa
- ལྷོ་ཕྱོགས་པ།
- dakṣiṇāpathika AS
Phālguna
- sos ka’i zla ba dang po
- dgun gyi zla ba bzhi pa
- སོས་ཀའི་ཟླ་བ་དང་པོ།
- དགུན་གྱི་ཟླ་བ་བཞི་པ།
- phālguna AS
Prajāpati
- skye dgu’i dag po
- skye dgu'i tshogs
- སྐྱེ་དགུའི་དག་པོ།
- སྐྱེ་དགུའི་ཚོགས།
- prajāpati AS
rice porridge
- bras dang ’o thug
- ’o ma dang ’bras chen
- བྲས་དང་འོ་ཐུག
- འོ་མ་དང་འབྲས་ཆེན།
- pāyasa AS
royal servant
- rgyal po’i zhabs ’bring ba
- རྒྱལ་པོའི་ཞབས་འབྲིང་བ།
- rājopasevaka AS
sacrificial mantra
- mchod sbyin gyi rabs
- མཆོད་སྦྱིན་གྱི་རབས།
- yajñamantra AS
Śākya Ö
- shAkya ’od
- ཤཱཀྱ་འོད།
- —
Sarvarasa
- ro thams cad
- thams cad ro pa
- རོ་ཐམས་ཅད།
- ཐམས་ཅད་རོ་པ།
- sarvarasa AS
science of propitiousness
- bkra shis pa’i ltas
- བཀྲ་ཤིས་པའི་ལྟས།
- śivāvidyā AS
Tārāvacara
- skar ma rgyu ba
- skar ma spyod
- སྐར་མ་རྒྱུ་བ།
- སྐར་མ་སྤྱོད།
- tārāvacara AS
Vedic observances
- rig byed kyi brtul zhugs
- རིག་བྱེད་ཀྱི་བརྟུལ་ཞུགས།
- vedavratapada AS
Vicārin
- rnam par ’gro ba
- rnam par rgyu ba
- རྣམ་པར་འགྲོ་བ།
- རྣམ་པར་རྒྱུ་བ།
- vicārin AS