The Stem Array
Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā
Toh 44-45
Degé Kangyur, vol. 37 (phal chen, ga), folios 274.b–396.a; vol. 38 (phal chen, a), folios 1.b–363.a
- Surendrabodhi
- Vairocanarakṣita
- Bandé Yeshé Dé
- Jinamitra
Imprint
Translated by Peter Alan Roberts
under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha
First published 2021
Current version v 1.0.30 (2024)
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84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha is a global non-profit initiative to translate all the Buddha’s words into modern languages, and to make them available to everyone.
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Table of Contents
Summary
In this lengthy final chapter of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, while the Buddha Śākyamuni is in meditation in Śrāvastī, Mañjuśrī leaves for South India, where he meets the young layman Sudhana and instructs him to go to a certain kalyāṇamitra or “good friend,” who then directs Sudhana to another such friend. In this way, Sudhana successively meets and receives teachings from fifty male and female, child and adult, human and divine, and monastic and lay kalyāṇamitras, including night goddesses surrounding the Buddha and the Buddha’s wife and mother. The final three in the succession of kalyāṇamitras are the three bodhisattvas Maitreya, Mañjuśrī, and Samantabhadra. Samantabhadra’s recitation of the Samantabhadracaryāpraṇidhāna (“The Prayer for Completely Good Conduct”) concludes the sūtra.
Acknowledgements
Translated by Peter Alan Roberts and edited by Emily Bower, who was also the project manager. Ling Lung Chen was consultant for the Chinese, and Tracy Davis copyedited the final draft. The translator would like to thank Patrick Carré and Douglas Osto, who have both spent decades studying and translating this sūtra, for their advice and help.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The generous sponsorship of Richard and Carol Weingarten; of Jamyang Sun, Manju Chandra Sun and Siqi Sun; and of an anonymous donor, which helped make the work on this translation possible, is most gratefully acknowledged.
Text Body
Chapter 45: The Stem Array
Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā
Sudhana, the head merchant’s son, was blessed by the instruction of the kalyāṇamitra; his mind practiced the words of the kalyāṇamitra; his mind had the perception of the kalyāṇamitra as a physician and himself as a patient; [F.96.a] his mind was contented by focusing on the vision of the kalyāṇamitra; his mind had obtained the opportunity to disperse the mountain of obscurations to the vision of the kalyāṇamitra; his mind had attained, through seeing the kalyāṇamitra, entry into the ocean of the ways of the great compassion that saves all the realms of beings; his mind had attained, through seeing the kalyāṇamitra, the illumination by wisdom of the ocean of the ways of the realm of phenomena.
Thus, he approached the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā.
The night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā, in order to further increase the ripening of his accumulation of the roots of merit through approaching a kalyāṇamitra, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as arising from a great accumulation, blessed going to a kalyāṇamitra as great prowess, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as diligence in actions that is difficult to realize, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as reliance1331 throughout a long time, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as going into centerless and limitless directions, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as the source for dwelling together for a long time, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as the source of perceiving infinite tasks being completed, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as the prowess of an accumulation of centerless and limitless displays of the path, blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as prowess through every gateway, [F.96.b] and blessed approaching a kalyāṇamitra as the prowess of undeviating arrival.
Sudhana, the head merchant’s son, approached the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā in this way: approaching a kalyāṇamitra with diligent dedication in the accumulation of omniscience; approaching a kalyāṇamitra with the prowess of accomplishing an ocean of great prayers; approaching a kalyāṇamitra with the resolve to undergo suffering for the sake of a single being until the conclusion of the last future kalpa; approaching a kalyāṇamitra with the prowess of remaining for a long time1332 within a single atom, emitting sound1333 throughout the entire realm of phenomena while wearing the armor of diligence; approaching a kalyāṇamitra while moving at great speed through the entire extent of the ocean of directions; approaching a kalyāṇamitra while maintaining all bodhisattva conduct of future kalpas in a single pore of the body; approaching a kalyāṇamitra with the attainment of bodhisattva conduct and in each instant of mind dwelling in omniscient wisdom; approaching a kalyāṇamitra while intent on following the path and the display of miracles of the tathāgatas of the three times; approaching a kalyāṇamitra while following the path of entering the stream of all the ways of the realm of phenomena; and approaching a kalyāṇamitra without deviating from being focused on all the ways of the realm of phenomena and pervading the entire realm of phenomena. [F.97.a]
He saw the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā seated on a flower in the center of a lion throne within the circle of the assembly of the Bhagavat, resting in the bodhisattva samādhi called the banner of the power of vast, stainless, completely good joy.
He saw emanating from all her pores clouds of manifestations of the practice of the perfections, such as generosity, which delighted all beings, which brought pleasure to all beings, and which were various kinds of beauty for all beings.
They were like this: he saw clouds of manifestations of the practice of generosity in accord with the aspirations, perceptions, and languages of all beings, in order to benefit beings without causing discord, in order for there to be no concern for all material things, in order to give equally to all beings, in order for there to be impartiality toward all beings, in order to give respectfully to all beings, in order to give all inner and outer things, in order to manifest the generosity that is difficult,1334 and in order to manifest in all worlds the practice of generosity according to the wishes of beings.
He saw clouds of manifestations of the countless difficult acts of generosity by the bodhisattvas that appear in the three times, [F.97.b] which being emanated were perceived by all beings within the vast extent of the worlds in the ten directions.
It was like this: because of her attainment of the inconceivable miraculous powers of the might of bodhisattvas, he saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanated bodies of various beings, equal in number to that of all beings, which spread throughout all beings within all world realms, demonstrating directly to them the unwavering commitment to vows of discipline; demonstrating throughout the realms of beings the field of the various vows of discipline of1335 asceticism; demonstrating nondependence on all worlds, no concern for all fields of perception, and the rejection of all locations in saṃsāra; demonstrating entering the gateway to the decline of the good fortune of devas and humans;1336 demonstrating the field of unattractiveness; dispelling the incorrect perception of attractiveness in the world; revealing the nature of phenomena to be impermanence, instability, destruction, and change; showing the true nature of all that is composite to be suffering and the absence of a self; yearning to dwell inseparably within the field of activity of the tathāgatas; inspiring beings toward the perfectly stainless conduct of the tathāgatas; teaching to beings, in accordance with their aspirations and languages, the practice of correct conduct; manifesting the lovely scent of correct conduct that brings satisfaction to beings; [F.98.a] and ripening all beings.
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanated bodies of various colors, which were as numerous as all beings, teaching the endurance by all beings of the major and minor parts of their bodies being cut off; teaching the endurance by all beings of harm to their bodies; teaching the endurance by all beings of being falsely reviled, censured, reproached, disgraced, and threatened; teaching the imperturbability of all beings; teaching all beings1337 to be neither uplifted by honors nor made downcast by disrespect;1338 teaching humility in all beings; teaching the unceasing wisdom of the unceasing patience toward the nature of all phenomena; teaching the practice of patience that eliminates the kleśas in all beings; turning all beings away from misshapen bodies with ugly color; teaching1339 the supreme pure color of the tathāgatas; and ripening beings.
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanated bodies of various colors, shapes, and sizes, equal in number to that of all beings, which spread everywhere in accordance with the aspirations of beings, teaching exertion in diligence for the great accumulation of omniscience; [F.98.b] the diligence that puts to flight all discord from the māras; the diligence that is constant and unwavering in undertaking the attainment of enlightenment; the diligence for rescuing all beings from the ocean of saṃsāra; the diligence that turns beings away from all the paths that lead to unfortunate existences, calamitous existences, terrible existences, and downfalls; the diligence for shattering to pieces the mountain of ignorance; the diligence that never wearies in serving and making offerings to all the tathāgatas; the diligence for receiving and holding the Dharma wheel of all the buddhas; the diligence for shattering and scattering the mountain of all obscurations; the diligence that never wearies of ripening and guiding all beings; and the diligence for purifying all buddha realms and teaching the pure, unsurpassable diligence of the tathāgatas, and he saw them ripening beings.
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanated bodies of various colors and shapes that through various methods brought joy to beings; prevented unhappiness; condemned all delights in desire; proclaimed in the world the quality of a sense of shame; brought beings to control of their senses; praised the unsurpassable conduct of celibacy; taught the fearfulness of the world of desire and the realm of Māra; taught all the worlds that are the range of desire, even to those who were free from delighting in desires; caused beings to delight in the pleasures of the Dharma; [F.99.a] enabled the successive attainment of the gateways1340 to dhyāna, samādhi, and samāpatti; described the mind that comprehends the elimination of all kleśas in all beings; taught all the miraculous manifestations of the ocean of bodhisattva samādhis; taught the miracles and supremacy of the higher cognitions of the bodhisattvas; brought joy to all beings; increased enthusiasm;1341 created happiness; dispelled unhappiness; caused the attainment of faultless minds; made minds skillful; purified thoughts; clarified the senses; brought physical bliss; magnified the power of delight in the Dharma; and thus ripened beings.
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of various bodies resembling all bodies that appear, in order to appear in accordance with the wishes of all beings within all realms, demonstrating unwearyingly going into the presence of kalyāṇamitras;1342 demonstrating unwearying service and attendance to ācāryas, gurus, and kalyāṇamitras;1343 demonstrating the diligence that never wearies of receiving and holding the turning of the Dharma wheel of all the tathāgatas; describing the way of comprehending the ocean of all the buddhas; [F.99.b] contemplating the ocean of all Dharma entrances; explaining the characteristics, natures, and ways of all Dharmas; teaching the entrances into the samādhis of all Dharmas;1344 teaching the range of wisdom that dispels the ocean of questions and doubts of all beings;1345 teaching the vajra of wisdom that destroys the mountains of wrong views of all beings; teaching, with every instant of mind, the rising of the disk of the sun of wisdom that dispels the darkness of the ignorance of all beings; and ripening beings1346 by bringing happiness to all beings.
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanations of many bodies of inconceivable colors and shapes, equal to those of all beings, becoming present before all beings in accordance with their motivations and aspirations, and teaching, giving instructions by having mastered various languages, the knowledge of what is meritorious in the world and what is not meritorious.1347 He saw the worldly deeds that should be accomplished, the description of the origin of all three realms, the explanation of the direction that leads to leaving all three realms, the teaching of the direction that leads to leaving the unendurable misery1348 of wrong views, and thereby the teaching of the unique path to omniscience, the teaching of the transcending of the path of the śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha levels, the teaching of being unstained by anger or love toward those who show respect and those who disrespect, the teaching of nonengagement with the gateways1349 to either saṃsāra or nirvāṇa, the teaching of the unceasing successive passage from one place to another such as the Tuṣita paradise, [F.100.a] the teaching of the unceasing succession of going to the bodhimaṇḍa and attaining complete buddhahood, and the ripening of beings for omniscience.
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanated bodies as numerous as the atoms in all buddha realms and visibly present in all worlds of beings. They were describing the completely good bodhisattva conduct and prayer; describing the special prayer for the perfect purification of the entire realm of phenomena; describing the purification of the entire ocean of world realms in each instant of mind; describing continuous service and offering to all the tathāgatas; teaching the continuous entry into the ocean of all the ways of the Dharma in each instant of mind; describing the continuous entry into the ocean of the ways of the realm of phenomena, which are as numerous as the atoms in the entire ocean of world realms, in each instant of mind; describing the continuous teaching of the purification of the path to omniscience while remaining resolutely throughout all future kalpas in all realms; describing continuous entry into the strengths of the tathāgatas in each instant of mind; teaching continuous entry into the ocean of all the ways of the three times; teaching the continuous manifestation of miraculous powers in all realms; and establishing all beings in omniscience through the teaching of bodhisattva prayer and conduct. [F.100.b]
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanated bodies as numerous as the minds of all beings, and in the presence of all beings teaching the limitless strength of the accumulation of omniscience; teaching the inexhaustible, indestructible,1350 and everlasting strength of the mind that knows all phenomena; teaching the irreversible, nonregressive, invincible, ever-continuing,1351 unsurpassable strength of the attainment of all bodhisattva conduct; teaching the bodhisattva strength that is unstained by any of the faults of saṃsāra; teaching the bodhisattva strength that disperses the entire army of Māra; teaching the bodhisattva strength that is unafflicted by the stains of any of the kleśas; teaching the bodhisattva strength that disperses the mountain of all karmic obscurations; teaching the bodhisattva strength of great compassion that continues throughout all kalpas with unwearying bodhisattva conduct; teaching the bodhisattva strength that brings happiness to all beings by shuddering and shaking all buddha realms; teaching the bodhisattva strength that defeats all the hosts of māras and adversaries; and elucidating in the world the great strength of the wisdom of turning the Dharma wheel and thus ripening all beings for omniscience. [F.101.a]
He saw, issuing forth from all her pores, clouds of emanated bodies, as numerous as the minds of all beings, which spread throughout the infinite realms of beings in the ten directions, teaching in accordance with the motivations and aspirations of beings the prowess of bodhisattva conduct and wisdom; teaching the wisdom that comprehends the ocean of all the realms of beings; teaching the wisdom that comprehends the ocean of the minds of all beings; teaching the wisdom that knows the ocean of the faculties of all beings; teaching the wisdom that comprehends the ocean of the conducts of all beings; teaching the wisdom that always knows the time for ripening and guiding all beings; teaching the wisdom that resounds throughout the entire realm of phenomena; teaching the wisdom that pervades everywhere, in each instant of mind, the ocean of all the ways of knowing the entire realm of phenomena; teaching the knowledge of the formation and destruction of the ocean of all world realms; teaching the knowledge of the basis, shape, and arrayed displays of all world realms; and teaching the knowledge of emanating offerings to all the tathāgatas, going into their presence, making offerings, rendering service, and possessing clouds of Dharma wheels. And by teaching in that way the practice of the perfection of knowledge, they were bringing happiness to beings, making their minds clear, creating joy, increasing aspiration, dispelling unhappiness, purifying1352 the mind, [F.101.b] creating a faultless mind, clarifying the senses, creating the power of aspiration, and causing irreversible progress toward omniscience.
In the same way that he saw beings being ripened in worlds through the teaching of the practice of the perfections, he saw the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā proclaiming all the bodhisattva Dharmas: the initial accumulation of developed motivation; the methods for serving and venerating kalyāṇamitras; approaching the feet of tathāgatas and making offerings to them and attending them; every method for practicing good qualities; making the most difficult of gifts through the practice of the perfection of generosity; the methods for training in the perfection of correct conduct; all the methods for giving up the great power of kingship, retinues, and great power over enjoyments and becoming a renunciate; all the accomplishments of patience in the domain of vows of discipline and great asceticism that are difficult to undertake in this world; all resolute engagement in the bodhisattva vows of discipline; the ocean of the qualities of firm bodhisattva commitments; the endurance1353 of the bad actions, bad speech,1354 and bad thoughts1355 of all realms of beings; the endurance of harm to the body and the mind; the patience of the nonperishing1356 nature of the Dharma;1357 the patience of belief in all Dharmas; [F.102.a] the patience of realizing the nature of the Dharma; the diligence for engaging in undertaking omniscience; the diligence for accomplishing all the qualities of buddhahood; the practice of the perfection of diligence; the accumulation of the perfection of meditation; dedication to the perfection of meditation; the pure practices that accomplish the perfection of meditation; the miraculous powers from the attainment of bodhisattva samādhis; the entry through an ocean of samādhi gateways; the practices of the perfection of meditation; the accumulation of the perfection of wisdom; the ways of purifying the sun disk of great bodhisattva wisdom; the ways of accumulating1358 the clouds of great wisdom; the accumulations of the great treasure of wisdom; the ways of analyzing the great ocean of wisdom; dedication to purification1359 and skill in great methods; the bodies from the perfection of great bodhisattva prayers; the accomplishment of the perfection of great prayers; the practice of the perfection of great prayers; the dedication in the past to the perfection of great prayers; [F.102.b] the great accumulations for attaining the perfection of strength; the conditions for the perfection of strength; the great ocean of the ways of the perfection of strength; the teaching of the perfection of strength; the dedication in the past to the perfection of strength; the practice of the perfection of knowledge; the ways of the perfection of knowledge; the ways of the purification of the perfection of knowledge; the direction of the perfection of knowledge; following the perfection of knowledge; the vastness of the perfection of knowledge; absorption in the ways of the perfection of knowledge; focusing on the ways of the perfection of knowledge;1360 following the vastness of the perfection of knowledge; the pervasion of the perfection of knowledge; the extent of the perfection of knowledge; the assemblage of the perfection of knowledge;1361 dedication in the past to the accomplishment of the perfection of knowledge; the arrangement of the arising of entry into the classification of the kinds of practice of the perfection of knowledge; possessing the ways of absorption in the perfection of knowledge;1362 seeking the knowledge of Dharma that encompasses what is Dharma and what is not Dharma;1363 seeking the knowledge of karma; seeking the knowledge of realms; [F.103.a] seeking the knowledge of kalpas; seeking the knowledge of times;1364 seeking the knowledge of the occurrence of buddhas; seeking the knowledge of buddhas; seeking the knowledge of the bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the arising of bodhisattva motivation; seeking the knowledge of the presence of bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the arising of bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the setting-forth1365 of bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of prayers; seeking the knowledge of the Dharma wheels of bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the analysis of the Dharma by bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the ways of the sea of Dharma of the bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the ocean1366 of Dharma of the bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the turning1367 of the Dharma wheel of the bodhisattvas; seeking the knowledge of the treasure of the Dharma of the bodhisattvas; and seeking the knowledge of the state of the Dharma of the bodhisattvas. Clouds of bodies of beings of various colors emitted from each of the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā’s pores ripened beings through all the limitless and centerless bodhisattva practices1368 endowed with the perfection of knowledge.
They were like this: he saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the Śuddhāvāsa devas of the Akaniṣṭha, Sudarśana, Sudṛśa, Atapa, and Avṛha paradises issuing forth and ripening beings. [F.103.b]
In the same way, he saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the devas in the Bṛhatphala, Puṇyaprasava, and Anabhraka paradises issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the devas in the Śubhakṛtsna, Apramāṇaśubha, and Parīttaśubha paradises issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the devas in the Ābhāsvara, Apramāṇābha, and Parīttābha paradises issuing forth and ripening beings.1369
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the devas in the Mahābrahma, Brahmapurohita, and Brahmapārṣada paradises issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the deva king Vaśavartin and his devas and apsarases issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the deva king Sunirmita and his devas and apsarases issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the deva king Saṃtuṣita and his devas and apsarases issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the deva king Suyāma and his devas and apsarases issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the deva king Śakra and his devas and apsarases issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the gandharva king Dhṛtarāṣṭra and his male gandharvas and female gandharvas issuing forth and ripening beings. [F.104.a]
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the kumbhāṇḍa king Virūḍhaka and his male kumbhāṇḍas and female kumbhāṇḍas issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the nāga king Virūpākṣa and his male nāgas and female nāgas issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the great yakṣa king Vaiśravaṇa and his male yakṣas and female yakṣas issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the kinnara king Druma and his male kinnaras and female kinnaras issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the mahoraga lord Sumati and his male mahoragas and female mahoragas issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the garuḍa lord Mahābalavegasthāma and his male garuḍas and female garuḍas issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the asura lord Rāhu and his male asuras and female asuras issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the Dharma king Yama and his male yamas and female yamas issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the lord of humans and his male humans and female humans issuing forth and ripening beings.
Thus he saw clouds of bodies that were like those of all the beings that appear in all existences issuing forth and ripening beings. [F.104.b]
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and ṛṣis issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like the devas of the realms of wind, water, and fire issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the devas of oceans, rivers, mountains, forests, harvests,1370 herbs, trees, and earth issuing forth and ripening beings.
He saw clouds of bodies that were like those of the devas of parks, cities, the bodhimaṇḍa, the day, the night, space, directions, those who walk on legs, and all those who have bodies issuing forth and ripening beings.
In the same way, he saw clouds of bodies that were like Vajrapāṇi issuing forth, spreading throughout the ten directions, being present before beings throughout the extent of the ways of the realm of phenomena, and ripening beings.
He saw, beginning with the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā’s first accumulation of the development of the aspiration to enlightenment, the unbroken succession of the accomplishment of a virtuous mind in her past lifetimes; the constant succession of praising the aspiration to enlightenment; the constant succession of passing away and obtaining a rebirth; the constant succession of the possession of a body; the constant succession of the wheel of names; the constant succession of going to a kalyāṇamitra; [F.105.a] the constant succession of honoring the appearance of a buddha; the constant succession of acquiring the sentences and syllables of the Dharma; the constant succession of the motivation to practice the bodhisattva path; the constant succession of attaining samādhi; the constant succession of seeing buddhas through having attained samādhi; the constant succession of the expanding vision that sees the realms; the constant wheel of the knowledge of the succession of the kalpas; the constant succession of the knowledge that comprehends the realm of phenomena; the constant succession of seeing the natures of beings; the constant succession of knowing the successive passing and rebirth of beings who are within the ocean of the ways of the realm of phenomena; the constant succession of understanding pure divine hearing; the constant succession of the gateways for entering into the continuum1371 of looking into the minds of the entire realm of beings; the constant succession of gateways for first entering divine sight; the constant succession of the first perception through divine hearing; the constant succession of the first knowledge of the minds of other beings; the constant succession of the first knowledge of the memory of the previous lifetimes of herself and others; [F.105.b] the constant succession of the first conditions for attaining miraculous activity through being established in the absence of existence; the constant succession of spreading the prowess of miraculous powers throughout the directions; the constant succession of attaining bodhisattva liberations; the constant succession of realizing the inconceivable ways of an ocean of bodhisattva liberations; the constant succession of the miraculous manifestations of bodhisattva samādhi; the constant succession of bodhisattva prowess; the constant succession of bodhisattva domination; the constant succession of gaining the title of bodhisattva; the constant succession of entering the bodhisattva path; and the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā’s constant succession of bodhisattva knowledge all issued from all her pores as clouds of emanated bodies that he then saw teaching the Dharma to beings.
He saw them declaring it, elucidating it, revealing it, communicating it, categorizing it, expanding upon it, enumerating it, giving instruction on it, making it known, and accomplishing it.
He saw some teaching the Dharma through speech from the sound of shaking in a domain of wind, [F.106.a] some through speech from the sound of crashing waves on a mass of water, some through speech from the sound of the roaring flames of a fire, some through speech from the sound of a roaring ocean, some through speech from the sound of the rumbling of an earthquake, some through speech from the sound and noise of great mountains striking against and buffeting one another, some through speech from the melodious sound of the shaking of the cities of the devas, some through speech from the sound of divine aerial palaces buffeting one another, some through the speech of the lords of the devas; some through the speech of the lords of the nāgas, some through the speech of the lords of the yakṣas, some through the speech of the lords of the gandharvas, some through the speech of the lords of the asuras, some through the speech of the lords of the garuḍas, some through the speech of the lords of the mahoragas, some through the speech of the lords of the kinnaras, some through the speech of the lords of the humans, some through the speech of the lords of the Brahmā devas, some through the speech of the songs of the apsarases, some through speech from the playing of divine music, some through speech sounding from precious jewels,1372 and some through the speech of all the various classes of beings, describing to beings the scope of the liberation of the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā.
In the same way, he saw clouds of bodhisattva bodies with various kinds of bodhisattva speech and clouds of emanated1373 tathāgatas, with the ways of the aspects of voice of the different kinds of speech of each tathāgata and describing to all beings the range of the liberation of the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā, including the first occurrence of developing the aspiration to enlightenment and the accumulation of accomplishments. [F.106.b]
He saw that each of those clouds of emanated forms purified, in each instant of mind, an anabhilāpyānabhilāpya of buddha realms in the world realms in the ten directions.
He saw them liberating1374 an infinite ocean of beings from all the sufferings of the lower realms.
He saw them establishing realms of beings, without limit or center, in the good fortune of devas1375 and humans.
He saw them freeing an ocean of beings, without limit or center, from the ocean of saṃsāra.
He saw them establishing an ocean of beings without limit or center on the śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha levels.
Sudhana, the head merchant’s son, saw them bringing, in each instant of mind, an ocean of beings, without limit or center, to the level of the ten strengths.
He heard them, contemplated them, scrutinized them, comprehended them, understood them, knew them, followed them, fathomed them, and was resolved as to their equality.
This was because of the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā’s having become an appropriate vessel for the completely good bodhisattva conduct, her supremacy through the miracles of the bodhisattva liberation called the vast banner1376 of inconceivable, completely good joy, her corresponding practice in the past, her being blessed by the blessings of the tathāgatas, and the ripening of her countless roots of merit.
Then Sudhana, the head merchant’s son, who had attained the illumination of an ocean of the power of great bodhisattva joy, who had been blessed by all the tathāgatas in the ten directions, [F.107.a] placed his hands together in homage and praised the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā with these appropriate verses:
Having praised the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā with those verses, Sudhana asked, “Goddess, how long has it been since you entered into attaining the highest, complete enlightenment? Goddess, how long has it been since you attained the bodhisattva liberation called the banner of the power of vast, stainless, completely good joy?”
The night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā recited these verses to Sudhana, the head merchant’s son:
“Noble one, do you think that the cakravartin king, that sovereign, who at that time, in that time, [F.112.a] was established in the unbroken lineage of the family of the buddhas is anyone else? Noble one, do not see him in that way. Mañjuśrī Kumārabhūta was at that time, in that time, that king, that sovereign, who was the cakravartin, established in the unbroken lineage of the family of the buddhas. The night goddess who awoke me was an emanation of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra.
“Noble one, what do you think? If you think that Bhadramati, the precious woman who was the queen of the cakravartin in that time, at that time, was anyone else, do not see her in that way. At that time, in that time, I was Bhadramati, the precious woman who was the queen of the cakravartin. I was awoken by that night goddess and inspired by her to go see the Buddha.
“Noble one, I developed in that one existence the aspiration for the highest, complete enlightenment. In that way, through the power of that development of aspiration, I have, throughout kalpas as numerous as the atoms in a buddha realm, never fallen into rebirth in the lower realms but have always continuously depended on existence as a human or deva, and in all those existences I have seen tathāgatas. Finally, through just seeing the Bhagavat Arhat Samyaksaṃbuddha Ratnaśrīpradīpaguṇaketu,1427 I attained the bodhisattva liberation called the banner of the power1428 of vast, stainless, completely good joy. When I had attained it, I took on this kind of form in order to ripen and guide beings.
“Noble one, I know only this bodhisattva liberation called the banner of the power1429 of vast, stainless, completely good joy. How could I know the conduct or describe the qualities of bodhisattvas who, at the feet of all the tathāgatas [F.112.b] in each instant of mind, attain a great ocean of the power for setting out upon omniscience; who, in each instant of mind, have completed the attainment of an ocean of great prayers within all the entrances for setting out upon omniscience; who, in each instant of mind, are skilled, through the ways of making an ocean of prayers, in accomplishing a domain of conduct in future kalpas; who are skilled in accomplishing, within each conduct, as many bodies as there are atoms in all buddha realms; who are skilled in pervading, with each body, the entire ocean of different ways in the realm of phenomena; who are skilled in manifesting, in each ocean of different ways in the realm of phenomena, a perceivable conduct of the body that accords with the dispositions of beings throughout all the buddha realms; who are skilled in comprehending, in each ocean of different ways in the realm of phenomena, an ocean of tathāgatas, without limit or center, within all the atoms of a realm in all realms; who are skilled in comprehending each tathāgata’s miraculous tathāgata manifestations that pervade the entire extent of the realm of phenomena; who are skilled in comprehending each tathāgata’s accomplishment of gathering the accumulation of bodhisattva conduct in past kalpas; who are skilled in obtaining and possessing each tathāgata’s vast1430 wheel of the Dharma; and who are skilled in comprehending the ocean of the different ways of miraculous manifestations by the tathāgatas in the three times?
“Depart, noble one. In this circle of the Tathāgata’s assembly, not far from me, there is the goddess of the night named Samantasattvatrāṇojaḥśrī. [F.113.a] Go to her and ask her, ‘How should a bodhisattva train in bodhisattva conduct? How should a bodhisattva practice it?’ ”
Then Sudhana, the head merchant’s son, bowed his head to the feet of the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā, circumambulated the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā many hundreds of thousands of times, keeping her to his right, and, looking back again and again, departed from the night goddess Pramuditanayanajagadvirocanā. [B7]
Colophon
This was translated and revised by the Indian upādhyāyas Jinamitra and Surendrabodhi and by the chief editor Lotsawa Bandé Yeshé Dé and others.2232
Tibetan Editor’s Colophon
A Multitude of Buddhas is the marvelous essence of the final, ultimate, definitive wheel from among the three wheels of the Sugata’s teaching. It has many other titles, such as The Mahāvaipulya Basket, The Earring, The Lotus Adornment, and so on.
It has seven sections:2233 A Multitude of Tathāgatas,2234 The Vajra Banner Dedication,2235 The Teaching of the Ten Bhūmis,2236 The Teaching of Completely Good Conduct,2237 [F.362.b] The Teaching of the Birth and Appearance of the Tathāgatas,2238 The Transcendence of the World,2239 and Stem Array.2240 These are subdivided into forty-five chapters.
According to Butön Rinpoché and others, it contains thirty-nine thousand and thirty verses, a hundred and thirty fascicles, and an additional thirty verses. In the Tshalpa Kangyur edition there are a hundred and fifteen fascicles, the Denkarma edition has a hundred and twenty-seven fascicles,2241 and present-day editions have various numbers of fascicles.2242
This sūtra was first received from Ārya Nāgārjuna by Paṇḍita Buddhabhadra and Paṇḍita Śikṣānanda (652–710), and they both translated it into Chinese. It is taught that Surendrabodhi and Vairocanarakṣita became principal editors for a Chinese translation.
As for the lineage of the text, there is the lineage from China: The perfect Buddha, Ārya Mañjuśrī, Lord Nāgārjuna, the two paṇḍitas mentioned above, and Heshang Tushun. Then the lineage continued through others until Üpa Sangyé Bum received it from Heshang Gying-ju. Then that lineage was passed on through Lotsawa Chokden and has continued up to the present time.
The lineage from India is as follows:
It was passed from Nāgārjuna to Āryadeva, and then Mañjuśrīkīrti, and so on, until Bari Lotsawa received it from Vajrāsana. It is taught that the lineage then continued through Chim Tsöndrü Sengé, the great Sakya Lord,2243 and so on.
However, I have not seen any other text or history of a translation made by any other lotsawa or paṇḍita other than those listed in the colophon to this translation into Tibetan.
The king of Jangsa Tham2244 had a complete Kangyur made that was based on the Tshalpa Kangyur. At the present time this is known as the Lithang Tshalpa Kangyur (1609–14). I considered this to be a reliable source and so have made it the basis for this edition. However, it has many omissions, accretions, and misspellings, and therefore I have at this time corrected it by seeking out many older editions.
There are variant Indian texts and conflicting translations, and I have not been able to ascertain from them a definitive single meaning or correct words. Nevertheless, this text is nothing but a valid edition.
There are varying translations of terms that have been left unrevised, as there is no contradiction in meaning. For example, it has rgyan instead of bkod pa;2245 ’byam klas instead of rab ’byams;2246 so so yang dag par rig pa instead of tha dad pa yang dag par shes pa;2247 thugs for dgongs pa;2248 [F.363.a] nyin mtshan dang zla ba yar kham mar kham dang instead of nyin mtshan dang yud du yan man dang;2249 and tha snyad instead of rnam par dpyod pa.2250
Sanskrit words have many cases and tenses, so that although the Tibetan lotsawas and paṇḍitas, who had the eyes of the Dharma, translated their meaning, their tenses, cases, and so on are difficult to discern. Those are the majority of the examples of uncertainty, and there are also a few other kinds, but they are nevertheless in accord with Tibetan grammar.
In most texts there are many archaic words, so that the meaning of the translation is not clear, but there is a consistency when those words are all in archaic Tibetan. However, there appears to have occurred in later times a strong adulteration of the text so that there is a mixture of archaic and modern forms. There are also unreliable placements of the shad mark that differentiates clauses, but all these have been left as they are because these faults are few and minor. Therefore, this revision has been diligently edited without becoming analogous to knocking down the ancient megaliths of the southern regions.
May this remain for the entire kalpa within the circle of the Cakravāla Mountains, as bright as the sun and moon, as the glory of the merit of nonsectarian beings and the precious teaching of the Buddha.
This was printed in the water tiger year called dge byed (1722),2251 in the presence of Tenpa Tsering (1678–1738), the divine Dharma king who rules in accordance with the Dharma, who has the vast, superior wealth of the ten good actions, and who is a bodhisattva as a ruler of humans and the source of happiness in the four regions of greater Tibet.
This was written by the attendant Gelong Tashi Wangchuk, who in the process of revision was commanded to become its supervisor.
Ye dharmahetuprabhavā hetun teṣān tathāgato hy avadat. Teṣāñ ca yo nirodha evaṃ vādī mahāśramanaḥ.
Bibliography
Kangyur Texts
sdong po bkod pa (Gaṇḍavyūha). Toh 44, ch. 45, Degé Kangyur vol. 37 (phal chen, ga), folios 274.b–396.a; vol. 38 (phal chen, a), folios 1.b–363.a.
sdong po bkod pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 37, pp. 590–853; vol. 38, pp. 3–800.
sdong po bkod pa. Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 39 (phal chen, ca), folios 22.b–352.a; vol. 40 (phal chen, cha), folios 1.a–310.a.
sangs rgyas phal po che zhe bya ba shin tu rgyas pa chen po’i mdo (Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtra) [The Mahāvaipulya Sūtra “A Multitude of Buddhas”]. Toh 44, Degé Kangyur vols. 35–38 (phal chen, ka–a). Stok Palace Kangyur vols. 35–40 (phal chen, ka–cha).
dga’ bo la mngal na gnas pa bstan pa (Nandagarbhāvakrantinirdeśa) [The Sūtra on Being in the Womb That Was Taught to Nanda]. Toh 57, Degé Kangyur vol. 41 (dkon brtsegs, ga), folios 205.b–236.b.
rgya cher rol pa (Lalitavistara). Toh 95, Degé Kangyur vol. 46 (mdo sde, kha), folios 1.b–216.b. English translation in Dharmachakra Translation Committee (2013).
snying rje chen po’i pad ma dkar po (Mahākaruṇāpuṇḍarīka) [White Lotus of Compassion Sūtra]. Toh 111, Degé Kangyur vol. 50 (mde sde, cha), folios 56.a–128.b.
ting nge ’dzin gyi rgyal po’i mdo (Samādhirājasūtra). Toh 127, Degé Kangyur vol. 55 (mdo sde, da), folios 1.b–170.b. English translation in Roberts (2018a).
dam pa’i chos pad ma dkar po (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka) [Lotus Sūtra/Lotus of the Good Dharma]. Toh 113, Degé Kangyur vol. 51 (mdo sde, ja), folios 1.b–180.b. English translation in Roberts (2018b).
bde ba can gyi bkod pa (Sukhāvatīvyūha). Toh 115, Degé Kangyur vol. 51 (mdo sde, ja), folios 195.b–200.b. English translation in Sakya Pandita Translation Group (2011).
rnam par snang mdzad chen po mngon par rdzogs par byang chub pa rnam par sprul pa byin gyis rlob pa shin tu rgyas pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po (Mahāvairocanābhisambodhivikurvatīadhiṣṭhānavaipulyasūtraindrarājānāmadharmaparyāya). Toh 494, Degé Kangyur vol. 86 (rgyud, tha), folios 151.b–260.a.
phung po gsum pa’i mdo (Triskandhakasūtra) [The Confession of the Three Heaps]. A reference to a passage (1.43 et seq.) in the Vinaya-viniścayopāli-paripṛcchā, Toh 68, Degé Kangyur vol. 43 (dkon brtsegs, ca) folios 120.a–121.a. English translation in UCSB Buddhist Studies Translation Group (2021).
byang chub sems dpa’i spyod yul gyi thabs kyi yul la rnam par ’phrul pa bstan pa (Bodhisattvagocaraupāyaviṣayavikurvāṇanirdeśa/Satyaka Sūtra) [The Teaching of the Miraculous Manifestation of the Range of Methods in the Field of Activity of the Bodhisattvas]. Toh 146, Degé Kangyur vol. 57 (mdo sde, pa), folios 82.a–141.b. English translation in Jamspal (2010).
tshangs pa’i dra ba’i mdo (Brahmajālasūtra). Toh 352, Degé Kangyur vol. 76 (mdo sde, aH), folios 70.b–86.a.
tshe dang ldan pa dga’ bo la mngal du ’jug pa bstan pa (Āyuṣmannandagarbhāvakrantinirdeśa) [The Sūtra on Entering the Womb That Was Taught to Āyuṣmat Nanda]. Toh 58, Degé Kangyur vol. 41 (dkon brtsegs, ga), folios 237.a–248.a. English translation in Kritzer 2021.
bzang po smon lam (Bhadracaryāpraṇidhāna). Toh 1095, Degé Kangyur vol. 101 (gzungs, waM), folios 262.b–266.a.
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā) [The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines]. Toh 9, Degé Kangyur vols. 26–28 (nyi khri, ka–ga). English Translation in Padmakara Translation Group (2023).
sa bcu’i le’u (Daśabhūmika) [Ten Bhūmi Sūtra]. Toh 44, ch. 31, Degé Kangyur vol. 36 (phal chen, ga), folios 46.a–283.a. English translation in Roberts (2021).
sems kyi rgyal pos dris nas grangs la ’jug pa bstan pa. Toh 44, ch. 36, Degé Kangyur vol. 36 (phal chen, kha), folios 348.b–393.b. Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) Kangyur vol. 36 (phal chen, kha), pp. 807–25.
Sanskrit Editions of the Gaṇḍavyūha
Vaidya, P. L., ed. Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra. Darbhanga: Mithila Institute, 1960.
Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra. GRETIL edition input by members of the Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, based on the edition by P. L. Vaidya. Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra. Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute, 1960. Last updated July 31, 2020.
Suzuki, D. T., and Hokei Idzumi, eds. The Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra. rev. ed. Tokyo: Society for the Publication of Sacred Books of the World, 1949.
Chinese Editions of the Gaṇḍavyūha and Commentaries
Da fangguang fohuayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 (Avataṃsaka Sūtra), translated by Buddhabhadra. Taishō 278.
Da fangguang fohuayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 (Avataṃsaka Sūtra), translated by Śikṣānanda. Taishō 279.
Da fangguang fohuayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經 (Avataṃsaka Sūtra), translated by Prajñā. Taishō 293.
Da fangguang fohuayan jing ru fajie pin 大方廣佛華嚴經入法界品 (Avataṃsaka Sūtra, Gaṇḍavyūha Chapter), translated by Divākara. Taishō 295.
Da fangguang fohuayan jing busiyi fo jingjie fen 大方廣佛華嚴經不思議佛境界分 (Avataṃsaka Sūtra, Chapter on The Teaching on the Inconceivability of the Buddhadharma), translated by Devaprajñā. Taishō 300.
Da fangguang fohuayan jing busiyi fo jingjie fen 大方廣佛華嚴經入法界品四十二字觀門 (Avataṃsaka Sūtra, Contemplation on the 42 Syllables of the Gaṇḍavyūha), translated by Amoghavajra. Taishō 1019.
Cheng Guan 澄觀. Da fangguang fohuayan jingshu 大方廣佛華嚴經疏 (Commentary on the Avataṃsaka Sūtra). Taishō 1735.
Translations of the Gaṇḍavyūha
Carré, Patrick. Soûtra de l’Entrée dans la dimension absolue. 2 vols.: I. Introduction et Traité de Li Tongxuan XXII–XL; II. Soûtra et glossaire. Plazac, France: Éditions Padmakara, 2019.
Cleary, Thomas. “Entry into the Realm of Reality” (chapter 39), in The Flower Ornament Scripture: A Translation of the Avatamsaka Sutra, pp. 1135–1532. Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1993.
Osto, Douglas (2010). “A New Translation of the Sanskrit Bhadracarī with Introduction and Notes.” New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 12, no. 2 (2010): 1–21.
———(2020). “The Supreme Array Scripture.” D. E. Osto. Accessed July 6, 2021.
Related Works in Tibetan
Madhyavyutpatti (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa). Toh 4347, Degé Tengyur, vol. 204 (sna tshogs, co) folios 131.b–160.a.
Mahāvyutpatti (bye brag tu rtogs par byed pa chen po). Toh 4346, Degé Tengyur vol. 204 (sna tshogs, co), folios 1.b–131.a.
Ngorchen Könchok Lhündrup (ngor chen dkon mchog lhun grub) and Ngorchen Sangyé Phuntsok (ngor chen sangs rgyas phun tshogs). Ngor chos ’byung: A History of Buddhism, being the text of dam pa’i chos kyi byung tshul legs par bshad pa bstan pa rgya mtshor ’jug pa’i gru chen zhes bya ba rtsom ’phro kha skon bcas. New Delhi: Ngawang Topgay, 1973.
Pekar Zangpo (pad dkar bzang po). mdo sde spyi’i rnam bzhag: bstan pa spyi’i rgyas byed las mdo sde spyi’i rnam bzhag bka’ bsdu ba bzhi pa zhes bye ba’i bstan bcos. Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang (Minorities Publishing House), 2006.
Phangthangma (dkar chag ’phang thang ma). Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003.
Situ Chökyi Jungné (si tu chos kyi ’byung gnas). “sde dge bka’ ’gyur gyi dkar chags.” In ta’i si tu pa kun mkhyen chos kyi ’byung gnas bstan pa’i nyin byed kyi bka’ ’bum, vol. 9, folios 1.b–224.b. Kangra, Himachal Pradesh: Palpung Sungrab Nyamso Khang, 1990.
Related Works in Other Languages
Burnouf, Eugene. Le lotus de la bonne loi. Paris: L’Imprimerie Nationale, 1852.
Carré, Patrick. Notes sur la traduction française de l’Avataṃsakasūtra. Forthcoming.
Dharmachakra Translation Committee, trans. The Play in Full (Lalitavistara, Toh 95). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2013.
Edgerton, Franklin. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. 2 vols. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970.
Fontein, Jan (2012). Entering the Dharmadhātu: A Study of the “Gandavyūha” Reliefs of Borobudur. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
———(1967). The Pilgrimage of Sudhana: A Study of Gaṇḍavyūha Illustrations in China, Japan and Java. The Hague: Mouton, 1967.
Gifford, Julie A. Buddhist Practice and Visual Culture: The Visual Rhetoric of Borobodur. Abingdon: Routledge, 2011.
Gómez, Luis Óscar. “Selected Verses from the Gaṇḍavyūha: Text, Critical Apparatus, and Translation.” PhD diss., Yale University, 1967.
Gómez, Luis Óscar, and Hiram Woodward Jr., eds. Barabuḍur: History and Significance of a Buddhist Monument. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1981.
Hamar, Imre. “The History of the Buddhāvataṃsaka-sūtra: Shorter and Larger Texts.” In Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism, edited by Imre Hamar, 139–68. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2007.
Harrison, Paul. “Searching for the Origins of the Mahāyāna: What Are We Looking For?” The Eastern Buddhist 28, no. 1 (1995): 48–69.
Kern, H. Saddharma-Puṇḍarīka or the Lotus of the Good Law. Sacred Books of the East 21. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1884.
Kim, Hyung-Hi. La carrière du Bodhisattva dans l’Avataṃsaka-sūtra: Materiaux pour l’étude de l’Avataṃsaka-sūtra et ses commentaires chinois. Bern: Peter Lang, 2013.
Kritzer, Robert, trans. The Sūtra on Entry into the Womb (Garbhāvakrāntisūtra, Toh 58). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2021.
Jamspal, Lozang. The Range of the Bodhisattva, A Mahāyāna Sūtra: Ārya-bodhisattva-gocara, Introduction and Translation. New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, Columbia University Center for Buddhist Studies, Tibet House US, 2010.
Lewis, Todd T. “Contributions to the Study of Popular Buddhism: The Newar Buddhist Festival of Guṃlā Dharma.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 16, no. 2 (Winter 1993): 309–54.
McMahan, David. “Transpositions of Metaphor and Imagery in the Gaṇḍavyūha and Tantric Buddhist Practice.” Pacific World Journal Third Series, no. 6 (Fall 2004): 181–94.
Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit–English Dictionary. Reprint of 1899 edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Osto, Douglas (2008). Power, Wealth and Women in Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra. Oxfordshire: Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism, 2008.
———(2009a). “ ‘Proto-Tantric’ Elements in the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra.” Journal of Religious History 33, no. 2 (June 2009): 165–77.
———(2009b). “The Supreme Array Scripture: A New Interpretation of the Title ‘Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra.’ ” Journal of Indian Philosophy 37 (2009): 273–90.
Ōtake, Susumu. “On the Origin and Early Development of the Buddhāvataṃsaka-Sūtra.” In Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism, edited by Imre Hamar, 87–107. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2007.
Padmakara Translation Group, trans. The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 9). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2023.
Revianur, A. “Forms and types of Borobudur’s stupas.” In Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World, edited by Melani Budianta et al., 577–84. New York: Routledge, 2018.
Roberts, Peter Alan, trans. (2018a). The King of Samādhis Sūtra (Samādhirājasūtra, Toh 127). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2018.
———, trans. (2018b). The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, Toh 113). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2018.
———, trans. (2021).The Ten Bhūmis (Daśabhūmika, Toh 44-31). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2021.
Sakya Pandita Translation Group, trans. The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī (Sukhāvatīvyūha, Toh 115). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2011.
Shastri, Bahadur Chand. “The Identification of the First Sixteen Reliefs on the Second Main-Wall of Barabudur.” Bijarden tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië (Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia) 89, no. 1 (January 1932): 173–81.
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Tsugunari Kubo and Akira Yuyama, trans. The Lotus Sutra (Taishō Volume 9, Number 262). Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2007.
UCSB Buddhist Studies Translation Group, trans. Determining the Vinaya: Upāli’s Questions (Vinayaviniścayopāliparipṛcchā, Toh 68). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2021.
Un, Ko. Little Pilgrim. Berkeley: Parallax Press, 2005.
Van Norden, Bryan, and Nicholaos Jones. “Huayan Buddhism.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 Edition).
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Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. New York: Routledge, 2009.