The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs and thus has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations through such purification. Reciting and internalizing this sūtra is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and also for the welfare of a state and the world.
In this sūtra, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu has a dream in which a prayer of confession emanates from a shining golden drum. He relates the prayer to the Buddha, and a number of deities then vow to protect it and its adherents. The ruler’s devotion to the sūtra is emphasized as important if the nation is to benefit. Toward the end of the sūtra are two well-known narratives of the Buddha’s previous lives: the account of the physician Jalavāhana, who saves and blesses numerous fish, and that of Prince Mahāsattva, who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs.
This is the shortest version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light preserved in the Kangyur. It comprises twenty-one chapters, was translated into Tibetan primarily from Sanskrit, and is the only version for which a complete Sanskrit manuscript survives.
This text was translated by Peter Alan Roberts, who translated the text from Tibetan into English and wrote the introduction. Ling Lung Chen and Wang Chipan were consultants for the Chinese versions of the sūtra. Emily Bower was the project manager and editor. Tracy Davis was the initial copyeditor. Thanks to Michael Radich for sharing his research on the sūtra.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. Rory Lindsay edited the translation and the introduction, and Xiaolong Diao, Ting Lee Ling, and H. S. Sum Cheuk Shing checked the translation against the Chinese sources. Ven. Konchog Norbu copyedited the text, and André Rodrigues was in charge of the digital publication process.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of May Gu, George Gu, Likai Gu and Tiffany Tai, Lillian Gu and Jerry Yen.
The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs, and thus it has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations. It is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and beneficial for the welfare of a state and of the world.
The work translated here is the twenty-one-chapter version (hereafter referenced as Toh 557) of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. There is also the twenty-nine-chapter version (hereafter referenced as Toh 556)1 and the thirty-one-chapter version (hereafter referenced as Toh 555).2 Toh 557 and Toh 556 were translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit, so almost the entirety of Toh 557 is present in an identical translation in Toh 556.
This sūtra’s principal chapters are the third and fourth, which describe the lay bodhisattva Ruciraketu having a dream in which he sees a brightly shining golden drum. When a brahmin beats the drum, Ruciraketu hears in the drumbeats a hundred-verse prayer, and he subsequently recites that prayer to the Buddha.
Most of the following chapters are concerned with encouraging the recitation of this prayer and of the sūtra itself. They describe how various divine beings in this world revere the sūtra and promise to protect it and its adherents. These include the Four Mahārājas; Dṛḍhā, who is the goddess of the earth; Sarasvatī, the goddess of wisdom, learning, and music; Śrī, the goddess of good fortune; and the yakṣa general Saṃjñeya.
This sūtra emphasizes its importance for kings. It states that if they honor the reciters of this sūtra and arrange for its recitation and teaching, then their reign and their kingdom will prosper. They will avoid such calamities as invasion, famine, and so on. The sūtra also warns that if they fail to show such devotion, there will be disastrous results for both them and their kingdoms. Chapter 12 is dedicated to the subject of how to be a good king.
There are also chapters that deal with doctrine. Chapter 2 presents the view that a buddha never dies and so never passes into nirvāṇa. Therefore, there is no body and no physical relics of his body after his cremation, and so the Dharma never ceases to be taught. The passing of a buddha and the extinction of the Dharma are solely illusory manifestations, skillful methods to inspire beings to practice and to provide them with relics as objects for their devotion. Chapter 6 teaches the view of emptiness. Toh 555 and Toh 556 also contain chapters describing the nature of the three bodies and the ten bhūmis.
There are two narratives that describe previous lives of the Buddha. Chapter 16 describes the physician Jalavāhana, who, as a result of performing Dharma recitations while standing in a lake, ensured the rebirth of ten thousand fish into the paradise of Trāyastriṃśa. In the preceding chapter these same ten thousand devas receive the prophecy of their buddhahood. When the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā objects that they have not accomplished the necessary bodhisattva conduct in past lives to receive such a prophecy, the Buddha explains that this was unnecessary because they had devotion to this Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.
The other past-life narrative, which is given in chapter 18, is one of the most famous in Buddhist literature—that of the prince who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs. An interesting feature of the story in this sūtra is that much of the narrative is dedicated to an evocative description of the intense grief of parents who have lost their child, emphasizing the sorrow that the prince’s action has brought them.
As with other late Mahāyāna sūtras in which there is an emphasis on ritual, this text is classified in the Kangyur as a tantra, specifically as a Kriyā tantra, a class of tantras in which there is an emphasis on external ritual. The sūtra contains a description of how such rituals should be performed, and there are also passages that include lists of ingredients to place in a bath, along with mantras to recite while bathing, in order to achieve purification.
One can also see that the seed of the later maṇḍalas of the five buddha families is in this sūtra, for in chapters 2 and 3, buddhas of the four directions appear to a layman who has a visionary dream. They include Akṣobhya from the east and Amitābha from the west, both buddhas and their realms already established in the Buddhist tradition with specific sūtras dedicated to them. There also appear the buddhas Ratnaketu from the south and Dundubhisvara from the north, who in later tantras are usually named Ratnasaṃbhava and Amoghasiddhi. In this sūtra, the central buddha in terms of these directions would be Śākyamuni himself. In the Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra he is referred to as Vairocana, as the Buddha Vairocana is the buddha who manifests as all the buddhas throughout this trichiliocosm.
A version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light existed in India by the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, when it was translated into Chinese by Dharmakṣema (385–433) in 420, in a form that corresponds to the fragments of its translation into old Khotanese. The author of Precious Lamp of the Middle Way3 mentions that The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light contains profound teachings in the section on the absence of relics, this passage being within the chapter on the lifespan of the Buddha. The sūtra’s significance in Indian Buddhism is evident from the three tantras4 and ten commentaries5 that specify that it should be the text recited in one of the four directions when performing a maṇḍala rite. There are also five other texts in the Tengyur that emphasize the importance and status of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and its recitation,6 including Śāntideva’s eighth-century Śikṣāsamuccaya (Compendium of Training) in which he provides two extracts from the sūtra that should be recited. There are also two recitation texts composed of extracts from the sūtra.7
In addition to its importance for rites and recitations, the text is quoted on doctrinal points in Indian commentaries. Passages indicating that the Buddha never dies, leaves no relics, and that the Dharma never ceases are quoted in six texts,8 two of which9 cite the delightful verse that describes the impossibility of there being buddha relics, stating that there will be a buddha relic only when a ladder to the moon is built from rabbit horns.
The descriptions of buddha nature and the nature of the bodies of a buddha, which are only in Toh 555 and Toh 556, are quoted in two texts in the Tengyur, one written in Tibetan and one translated from Sanskrit by Rinchen Sangpo,10 although nothing is known about the author.
In Newar Buddhism, this sūtra became and remains one of the nine principal sūtras called “the nine Dharmas,”11 which are considered to be the most important lengthy sūtras to be recited and offered to.
Sanskrit manuscripts of this sūtra survived as fragments discovered in Chinese Central Asia (Xinjiang) and as entire texts in Nepal, where the title is Suvarṇabhāsottama, with bhāsa being a synonym for prabhāsa, both meaning “light.”
The Sanskrit text of the sūtra was first edited in 1898, in Calcutta, India, by S. C. Das and S. C. Shastri. That was followed by the edition by B. Nanjio and H. Idzumi in Japan in 1931, and by the edition by Johannes Nobel (1887–1960) in 1937. This translation refers to the 1967 S. Bagchi edition.
The widespread popularity of this sūtra outside India is also evident from its translation not only into Tibetan and Chinese but also from Sanskrit into Khotanese; from Chinese into Tibetan, Sogdian, Uighur, Tangut, and Manchu; and from Tibetan into Mongolian.
There are three surviving translations of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in Chinese. The earliest of these was translated by Dharmakṣema (385–433). He was an Indian who came to China in 414, living first in Dunhuang. Then in 420 he went to Guzang, the capital of Northern Liang, one of the sixteen independent states of that time, situated in what is now the Gansu region in China’s northwest. There he studied Chinese and engaged in translation under the patronage of Juqu Mengxun (368–433), the ruler of Northern Liang. He also had the reputation of being “a master of spells.” As a result of that reputation, Juqu Mengxun, toward the end of his reign, became afraid that Dharmakṣema might be used against him by his adversaries and so he had him assassinated.12 Nobel believed that the Sanskrit in its present form is not earlier than the mid-fifth century and that Dharmakṣema translated from an earlier version. This opinion appears to be supported by the Sanskrit manuscript fragments discovered in Khotan.13
The second surviving translation into Chinese is that by Bao Gui in 597. It is an amalgam of earlier translations that no longer exist and four chapters that were translated by Paramārtha (499–569). As there is no surviving Sanskrit for the additional chapters in the Chinese and Tibetan, Michael Radich has examined the evidence as to whether they are Indian or Chinese in origin.
The third translation was by Yijing (635–713), which was published in 703. Because of its clarity and writing style, this version became popular in China and was itself translated into Tibetan in the early ninth century. Yijing’s translation, compared to the Sanskrit and the Tibetan translation from Sanskrit, is freer, to the extent that Emmerick has stated it could not be used to reconstruct the original Sanskrit.14 Yijing spent thirty years in India and Sumatra and returned to China in 695. He brought with him four hundred Sanskrit texts, including The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and spent the first decade of the seventh century translating them.15
The Mogao caves of Dunhuang, which were sealed in the eleventh century, contained a great number of manuscripts of the sūtra, particularly those of Yijing’s translation into Chinese. The sūtra became popular for its teachings on freeing oneself from the effects of bad karma. For example, Yijing’s Chinese translation (and the Uighur and Tangut versions derived from it) has a preface that states how the sūtra saved Zhang Judao, ruler of Tangut, from going to hell because he had slaughtered cattle for a big feast. This narrative is illustrated in a twelfth-century Tangut woodcut that is preserved in St. Petersburg.16
The sūtra was of particular importance to monarchs, and starting in seventh-century Japan, the ritual of reciting this sūtra was considered important to perform for the benefit of the state.
Toh 557 (the version translated here) does not list its translators in the colophon. Toh 556 was produced by Jinamitra, Śilendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé in the early ninth century. Almost the entirety of Toh 557 is present word for word in Toh 556, so they either incorporated an earlier translation or extracted the shorter version from the longer.
By contrast, Toh 555 is a translation made by Gö Chödrup of Yijing’s Chinese version in the early ninth century. The Tibetan is clearer and more readable than in the other two versions, perhaps because it is less constrained by conforming to the Sanskrit, but also because the Chinese was a freer translation from the Sanskrit, which was done purposely to enhance its readability.
There are some Tibetan texts included in the Tengyur that were authored by those Tibetan translators active in the early ninth century. The translator Kawa Paltsek quotes from the passages describing the Dharma body and the Buddha not leaving any relics because he has no body with bones and blood.17 Yeshé Dé wrote a text that has a number of references to this sūtra’s teaching on the three bodies of a buddha, buddha nature, and the description of the bhūmis.18
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, also known as Atiśa, whose pupils founded the influential Kadampa tradition in Tibet, is the author of three of the texts in the Tengyur that refer to this sūtra, including his most famous work, A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, which contains an encouragement to use the sūtra’s prayer both for purification and as a dedication prayer.
The commentary in the Tengyur that quotes from the sūtra more than any other—twenty times in all—is the translation by Gö Chödrup of An Extensive Commentary on the Sūtra that Elucidates the Profound Intention by the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk19 (613–96), who had migrated to China. This commentary by Wŏnch’ŭk in Tibetan translation became a particular influence on the thought of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelukpa school.20 The sūtra has been quoted by great masters in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism and extracts from it were published in Tibet as numerous standalone texts—not only the confession prayer but also other chapters, such as the treatise on kingship. Its continuing significance is indicated by Pema Karpo (1527–92), the hierarch of the Drukpa Kagyü school, composing a confession prayer extracted from The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light at the request of Döndrup Dorjé, the ruler of Shigatsé.
An example of the way the sūtra was recited in Tibet is found in a version compiled by Ngawang Lobsang Chöden (1642–1714), the second Changkya Rinpoché.
Toh 556 and Toh 557 were both translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit. Only the Sanskrit that is equivalent to Toh 557 survives. It divides the equivalent of chapter 10 in the Tibetan into two, separating the homage to buddhas and bodhisattvas into its own small chapter. However, its final chapter is divided into two in the Tibetan, resulting in both having twenty-one chapters. Toh 556 appears to preserve passages that were lost from Toh 557. For example, chapter 12, “The King’s Treatise,” begins abruptly: “At that time…,” having evidently lost the introductory narrative—present in the equivalent chapter (chapter 20) in the longer version—that sets the action in a distant past.
Toh 555 was translated into Tibetan from Chinese.21 The source text was Yijing’s seventh-century translation from Sanskrit into Chinese, and therefore the translation differs throughout, even though the content is essentially the same. There are many passages that are actually shorter versions of those in the translations from Sanskrit. Its greater length compared to Toh 556 is primarily due to the addition of chapters 29 and 30.
In 1958, Nobel published a German translation based on Yijing’s Chinese text. In 1970, Ronald Emmerick produced an English translation of the Sanskrit. In 2007, Zopa Rinpoche’s FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition) produced an English translation of Toh 557.
The Buddha is on Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājaghṛa with a great assembly. He states that he will teach a sūtra that will free beings from various worldly sufferings through its being recited and listened to.
In the town of Rājaghṛa, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu wonders why the Buddha has only an eighty-year lifespan if he has no bad karma. His house miraculously transforms, and the buddhas of the four directions appear and tell him that the Buddha’s lifespan is, in fact, inconceivably long. At that time on Vulture Peak, the Kauṇḍinya brahmin Vyākaraṇa asks the Buddha that he be given a relic when the Buddha passes away so that he might make offerings to it. Sarvasattvapriyadarśana, a young man from the town of Vaiśalī, tells the Kauṇḍinya brahmin that the Buddha does not pass away and there will never be relics. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin states that he knew that but made his request so that the truth will be revealed that the appearance of passing away and relics is simply a skillful method to benefit beings.
In his home in Rājaghṛa, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu dreams of a brahmin beating a golden drum from which come verses that he is able to remember. He goes to the Buddha on Vulture Peak to repeat those verses to him.
This chapter comprises the hundred verses that Ruciraketu repeats to the Buddha. He describes hearing the verses in the dream. They begin with a prayer that they will benefit all beings, and then there are a number of verses of the confession of past bad actions followed by a praise of the Buddha, a prayer that beings be freed from suffering, and finally the dedication of merit so that the reciter will attain enlightenment.
The Buddha repeats to a goddess a praise of the buddhas in thirty-five verses made by a king in the distant past.
The Buddha recites verses that briefly describe emptiness, which, he states, he has taught extensively in other sūtras. He describes that he has practiced the path for a long time and that it is impossible to calculate his wisdom.
The Four Mahārājas, the protectors of the world, promise that they will protect whoever teaches and recites this sūtra and will dispel problems for the king of that country and its population. They and the Buddha describe the miraculous events that occur in the paradises when a king engages in the ritual of venerating the sūtra, and how all buddhas will congratulate him and prophesy his buddhahood. The Mahārājas describe how a king who wishes his realm to prosper and be happy should be devoted to the sūtra. Then they praise the Buddha in verse, and the Buddha praises the sūtra in verse.
The goddess Sarasvatī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra with wisdom and skills. She gives the recipe for a cleansing liquid and a mantra that will prevent misfortune. Then the Buddha praises her and teaches beneficial mantras. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin praises Sarasvatī in verse.
The goddess Śrī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra and its preservation so that beings will have good fortune. She states she had been a follower of the Buddha Ratnakusumaguṇasāgaravaiḍūryakanakagirisuvarṇakāñcanaprabhāsaśrī and that she brings good fortune to beings wherever she goes and inspires them to make offerings to that buddha. She dwells in a palace in the paradise of Alakāvati and states that offerings should be made to her and to that buddha. A mantra is taught for her invocation, and instructions for making offerings to her are given.
The chapter commences with a homage to a series of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Then Dṛḍhā, the goddess of the earth, promises the Buddha that she will come to wherever The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is taught, and with her head she will support the feet of the dharmabhāṇaka. Having heard the sūtra, she will make the earth fertile, and what is grown in it nutritious and life-enhancing, and the population will increase. She states that if someone who has heard the sūtra returns home and repeats even one line of verse from it, that home will prosper. The Buddha states that anyone who has listened to even one line of the sūtra or makes offerings to it will be reborn in a paradise after death, enjoy happiness for countless eons, and eventually attain buddhahood.
The yakṣa general Saṃjñeya promises to protect and defend whoever recites the sūtra. He describes his realization and wisdom and promises to endow the teachers of the sūtra with eloquence and physical health. He states that those who hear it will enjoy happiness in paradises for countless eons and eventually attain buddhahood.
After an homage to Buddha Ratnakusumaguṇasāgaravaiḍūryakanakagirisuvarṇakāñcanaprabhāsaśrī, Śākyamuni, Śrī, and Sarasvatī, the chapter begins abruptly and appears to omit the introduction that sets the narrative in the past, which is in a complete form in the other versions of the sūtra. At his enthronement, King Ruciraketu is told by his father, King Balendraketu, to learn the verse treatise on kingship called The Commitment of the Lord of Devas, and he recites it to him. The treatise explains why a king is called a deva even though he is a human: it is because a king is a deva sent to the human world to govern it. A king should therefore fulfill that duty, particularly by punishing the wicked. If he does not do so, calamities of all kinds will befall him and his kingdom. A righteous king will cause all kinds of good fortune to occur.
In this chapter, which is entirely in verse, the Buddha recounts a previous life as a cakravartin by the name of Susaṃbhava, who lived while the teaching of a buddha named Ratnaśikhin was still present. In a dream, he saw the dharmabhāṇaka Ratnoccaya teaching The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. He then sought out that dharmabhāṇaka and requested him to teach the sūtra, arranging a throne and many offerings to him. At the conclusion of the teaching, Susaṃbhava, through his possession of a wish-fulfilling jewel, caused a rain of jewels and necessities to fall on the four continents he ruled, and he made an offering of it all to the Three Jewels. Śākyamuni states that he was Susaṃbhava at that time, and that Ratnoccaya became the Buddha Akṣobhya. He states that it is through the merit of hearing the sūtra that he has been a cakravartin king and a lord of devas countless times and has finally attained enlightenment.
The Buddha instructs the goddess Śrī, first in prose and then in verse, on how someone should teach the sūtra and how someone should listen to it, and the benefits that will accrue from such activities. He adds that the throne upon which the sūtra has been recited will subsequently become the setting for various miraculous manifestations. The devas will praise those who teach and listen to the Dharma. In particular, the yakṣas will give their protection, as will nāgas, asuras, Hārītī and her sons, and the various goddesses, including Sarasvatī, Śrī, and the goddesses of the earth, harvests, and trees. This will bring bountiful harvests and a plenitude of fruits and flowers. Sūrya, the sun god, will also be pleased and will bring wonderful light to the world.
The goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā asks the Buddha about what merit had been accrued by the ten thousand devas from Trāyastriṃśa who came to hear the teaching on hearing the prophecies given to three people.
She describes the prophecy of the bodhisattva Ruciraketu becoming the Buddha Suvarṇaratnākaracchatrakūṭa in the distant future and how his son Rūpyaketu will become the Buddha Suvarṇajambudhvajakāñcanābha. After him, the other son Rūpyaprabha will be the Buddha Radiance of a Hundred Golden Lights. The goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā then states that Jvalanāntaratejorāja and the other ten thousand Trāyastriṃśa devas have not in their past lives had such great bodhisattva conduct as those three, and yet the Buddha has prophesied their becoming buddhas. The Buddha explains that they gained the necessary merit simply through hearing and believing in The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. In a future time, all ten thousand will attain buddhahood in the same world, and each one will have the name Prasannavadanotpalagandhakūṭa.
The Buddha tells the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā that in a distant past, when the Dharma of a buddha named Ratnaśikhin had disappeared, there was a virtuous king named Sureśvaraprabha. At that time, a head merchant by the name of Jaṭiṃdhara had a son by the name of Jalavāhana, who learned medicine from him and was able to cure the many illnesses prevalent in the kingdom.
The Buddha tells the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā that Jalavāhana had a wife, Jalāmbujagarbhā, and two sons, Jalāmbara and Jalagarbha. He and his sons went into the wilderness where they discovered a lake that was drying up so that the ten thousand fish in it were in danger of dying. A tree goddess appeared who told Jalavāhana that he should save the fish, so he constructed a shade made from branches for the fish. Then he went to King Sureśvaraprabha and obtained twenty elephants from him. and he used them to carry water to replenish the lake. He then sent his son Jalāmbara home to obtain as much food as possible, and he used that to feed the fish. Finally, he waded into the lake and recited the Dharma of dependent origination and the name of the Buddha Ratnaśikhin. At another time, he became intoxicated from alcohol and fell asleep. The ten thousand fish had died, and because of Jalavāhana’s recitation they had been reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise. They came to the sleeping Jalavāhana and made offerings of many pearls and caused flowers to rain on his home, upon the lake, and other places in the kingdom. The king summoned Jalavāhana, who believed these omens occurred because of the death of the fish. His son Jalāmbara went to the lake and saw that they had all died. The Buddha states that he was Jalavāhana; his father, Śuddhodana, was Jaṭiṃdhara, Jalavāhana’s father; his sons Rāhula and Ānanda were Jalāmbara and Jalagarbha, Jalavāhana’s sons; his wife Gopā was Jalāmbujagarbhā, Jalavāhana’s wife; his father-in-law, Daṇḍapāṇi, was the king; the ten thousand devas from Trāyastriṃśa were the ten thousand fish; and the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā was the tree goddess.
The Buddha gives the goddess an account of when he went to the land of Pañcala with a thousand bhikṣus. He asked Ānanda to prepare a seat at a particular spot, and when he stamped the ground with his foot, a stūpa emerged. Inside were golden caskets containing bones. The Buddha tells the bhikṣus to pay homage to them, because these bones are from one of his previous lives, and it was through the sacrifice of his life that he was able to attain buddhahood. He relates that in the past, King Mahāratha had three sons, Mahāpraṇāda, Mahādeva, and Mahāsattva. The three princes wandered into a forest and saw a tigress that had given birth to five cubs but was starving and might soon eat her cubs. Mahāsattva decided to give his body to the tigress, and therefore, as they were leaving the forest, he told his brothers he would follow them later and turned back. He then cut his throat in front of the tigress and fell before her. The other two princes searched for their younger brother and discovered he had been eaten. The queen had nightmares and was distressed, thinking that something had happened to her sons. Therefore, the king and queen went in search of their sons and found the two princes, who told them of Mahāsattva’s death. In great distress, they went to his remains and placed them in the stūpa. The Buddha states that he was Mahāsattva. The story is then retold in verse, in which it is also stated that the Buddha’s father, Śuddhodana, was the king; his mother, Māya, was the queen; the two other princes were Maitreya and Mañjuśrī; the tigress was his stepmother, Mahāprajāpatī; and the tiger cubs were his first five bhikṣus.
Hundreds of thousands of bodhisattvas go to the Buddha Suvarṇaratnākaracchatrakūṭa and praise him in verse.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu comes before the Buddha Śākyamuni and praises him in verse.
The goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā praises the Buddha Śākyamuni in verse. The Buddha rises from his seat and says, “Well done!” and the multitudes of beings rejoice and praise his words.
This concludes “The Introduction,” the first chapter of “The Lord King of Sūtras, The Sublime Golden Light.”
Also, at that time, there dwelled in the great city of Rājagṛha[F.3.a] a bodhisattva mahāsattva by the name of Ruciraketu. He had served past jinas, had developed roots of merit, and had attended upon many hundreds of thousands of quintillions of buddhas. He thought, “Through what causes and what conditions does the Bhagavat Śākyamuni have such a short lifespan of eighty years?”
Then he thought, “The Bhagavat has said, ‘There are two causes and two conditions for a long life. What are those two? Forsaking killing and giving food.’ The Bhagavat Śākyamuni has forsaken killing and has correctly adopted the path of the ten good actions for countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of eons. He has given external and internal substances as food to beings, even to the extent of satisfying hungry beings with his own body, blood, bones, and limbs, to say nothing of every other kind of food.”
When that sublime being’s mind had thought this, with his attention focused upon the Buddha, his house became immense, vast, and made of blue beryl. It was adorned by many divine jewels, its color transformed by the Tathāgata,34 and it was pervaded by a perfume that transcended the divine.
In the four directions of that house there appeared four thrones made of divine jewels. The thrones35 were overspread with layers36 of precious, divine cloth decorated with divine jewels.37
Upon those38 thrones appeared divine lotus flowers, their colors transformed by the Tathāgata,39 and adorned by many jewels. Upon those lotuses there appeared the four buddha bhagavats. To the east appeared the Tathāgata Akṣobhya. To the south appeared the Tathāgata Ratnaketu.[F.3.b] To the west appeared the Tathāgata Amitāyus. To the north appeared the Tathāgata Dundubhisvara. At the moment when those buddha bhagavats appeared upon those lion thrones, the great city of Rājagṛha was filled by a great illuminating light that spread throughout the trichiliocosm world realm,40 throughout as many world realms in the ten directions as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. A rain of flowers fell. There came the sound of divine music. Through the power of the Buddha, all beings in this trichiliocosm world realm gained divine happiness. The blind saw forms with their eyes; the deaf heard sounds with their ears; the insane gained their sanity; those with distracted minds became undistracted; the naked became clothed; the hungry had their stomachs filled; the thirsty had their thirst quenched; beings afflicted by illness were healed; and those with impaired physical faculties became possessed of complete faculties. In those worlds there appeared vast, astonishing, wonderful qualities.
The bodhisattva41 Ruciraketu was amazed to see those buddha bhagavats, and, filled with joy, delighted, elated, pleased, and happy, with his palms together in homage, he bowed toward those buddha bhagavats. Mindful of those buddha bhagavats and mindful of the qualities of the Buddha Bhagavat Śākyamuni, he had doubts concerning the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni.[F.4.a] In his mind was the thought, “Why is it that the Bhagavat Śākyamuni has this short lifespan of eighty years?”
Those buddha bhagavats were aware of and understood these thoughts and said to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, “Noble son, do not think, ‘The Bhagavat Śākyamuni has such a short lifespan.’ Why is that? Noble son, except for the tathāgata arhat samyaksaṃbuddhas, we do not see anyone in the world with its devas, with its Māra, with its Brahmā, with its many beings who are mendicants and brahmins, and with its devas, humans, and asuras who has the ability to know the length of the Bhagavat Tathāgata Śākyamuni’s lifespan to its future limit.”
As soon as those buddha bhagavats described the Tathāgata’s lifespan, at that moment, through the power of the buddhas, the devas in the desire realm, the devas in the form realm, the nāgas, the yakṣas, the gandharvas, the asuras, the garuḍas, the kinnaras, the mahoragas, and the many hundreds of thousands of quintillions of assembled bodhisattvas arrived in the house of the bodhisattva Ruciraketu.
Those tathāgatas then recited verses that taught in brief the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni to that complete assembly:
At that time, in that assembly, there was the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa, who, together with countless thousands of brahmins, had made offerings to the Bhagavat.45 On hearing these words concerning the great nirvāṇa of the Tathāgata, he immediately wept,46 bowed down to the feet of the Bhagavat, and said to the Bhagavat, “If you have love for all beings, if you have great compassion, if you wish to benefit all beings, if you are a mother and father for all beings, if you are unequaled, if you are like the moon radiating light, if you are like a risen sun of great wisdom and knowledge, and if you look upon all beings as you do upon Rāhula, then I pray that you grant me something sacred.”
The Bhagavat remained silent.
Then, through the power of the Buddha, there arose confident eloquence in a Licchavī youth in that assembly, whose name was Sarvasattvapriyadarśana. He asked the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa, “Great brahmin, why do you ask the Bhagavat for something sacred? I will give you something sacred.”[F.5.a]
“Licchavī youth,” said the brahmin, “I wish for a relic of the Bhagavat the size of a mustard seed in order to make offerings to the Bhagavat. It is known that if one makes offerings to a relic the size of a mustard seed that one has received as a share of the ashes that are the relics of the Bhagavat, one will become the sole lord of the devas of Trāyastriṃśa.47
“O Licchavī youth, it is difficult for śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas to know The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. It is difficult for them to comprehend it. The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, which has those characteristics and qualities, is going to be spoken, so listen!48
“O Licchavī youth, The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is thus difficult to know and difficult to understand. Therefore, it is appropriate that we brahmins from an outlying island should keep a relic the size of a mustard seed in a casket, for by possessing it, beings will soon become lords of Trāyastriṃśa.
“O Licchavī youth, don’t you want to request a relic the size of a mustard seed from the Tathāgata, place the relic in a casket, and possess it so that beings will become lords of Trāyastriṃśa?
“O Licchavī youth, that is the sublime thing that I have requested.”
Then Sarvasattvapriyadarśana, the Licchavī youth, recited these verses to the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa:
On hearing those verses, the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa, replied to the Licchavī youth Sarvasattvapriyadarśana with these verses:
Then thirty-two thousand devas, having heard that profound teaching on the lifespan of the Tathāgata, all developed the aspiration for the highest, most complete enlightenment. With joyful mental thoughts and with one voice, they recited these verses:
Then the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, having heard the teaching on the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni from both those buddha bhagavats and those excellent individuals, was filled with joy, delighted, elated, pleased, and happy—he was pervaded by great happiness and delight.
When this teaching on the lifespan of the tathāgatas was taught, innumerable, countless beings developed the aspiration for the highest, most complete enlightenment, and those tathāgatas vanished.[F.6.b]
This concludes “The Teaching on the Lifespan of the Tathāgata,” the second chapter of “The Lord King of Sūtras, The Sublime Golden Light.”
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu then went to sleep and in a dream saw a golden drum54 that was shining brightly like the disk of the sun. In all directions, there were countless, innumerable buddha bhagavats seated upon precious beryl thrones at the foot of precious trees, encircled by assemblies of many hundreds of thousands. Looking straight ahead, they were teaching the Dharma.
Then he saw a person who appeared to be a brahmin beating that drum, and he heard a teaching in verse come from the drumbeats.
As soon as the bodhisattva Ruciraketu awoke from his sleep, he remembered the verses that were taught. Having remembered them, when the night was over, he left the city of Rājagṛha, and together with many thousands of people he went to Vulture Peak Mountain and into the presence of the Bhagavat. He bowed down to the feet of the Bhagavat and circumambulated the Bhagavat three times, keeping him to his right, and then sat down to one side.
Seated to one side, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, with his palms together in homage, bowed toward the Bhagavat and recited the teaching in verse that he had heard from the sound of the drum in his dream.
This concludes “The Dream,” the third chapter of “The Lord King of Sūtras, The Sublime Golden Light.”
The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs and thus has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations through such purification. Reciting and internalizing this sūtra is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and also for the welfare of a state and the world.
In this sūtra, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu has a dream in which a prayer of confession emanates from a shining golden drum. He relates the prayer to the Buddha, and a number of deities then vow to protect it and its adherents. The ruler’s devotion to the sūtra is emphasized as important if the nation is to benefit. Toward the end of the sūtra are two well-known narratives of the Buddha’s previous lives: the account of the physician Jalavāhana, who saves and blesses numerous fish, and that of Prince Mahāsattva, who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs.
This is the shortest version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light preserved in the Kangyur. It comprises twenty-one chapters, was translated into Tibetan primarily from Sanskrit, and is the only version for which a complete Sanskrit manuscript survives.
This text was translated by Peter Alan Roberts, who translated the text from Tibetan into English and wrote the introduction. Ling Lung Chen and Wang Chipan were consultants for the Chinese versions of the sūtra. Emily Bower was the project manager and editor. Tracy Davis was the initial copyeditor. Thanks to Michael Radich for sharing his research on the sūtra.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. Rory Lindsay edited the translation and the introduction, and Xiaolong Diao, Ting Lee Ling, and H. S. Sum Cheuk Shing checked the translation against the Chinese sources. Ven. Konchog Norbu copyedited the text, and André Rodrigues was in charge of the digital publication process.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of May Gu, George Gu, Likai Gu and Tiffany Tai, Lillian Gu and Jerry Yen.
The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs, and thus it has been significant for rulers—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations. It is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and beneficial for the welfare of a state and of the world.
The work translated here is the twenty-one-chapter version (hereafter referenced as Toh 557) of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. There is also the twenty-nine-chapter version (hereafter referenced as Toh 556)1 and the thirty-one-chapter version (hereafter referenced as Toh 555).2 Toh 557 and Toh 556 were translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit, so almost the entirety of Toh 557 is present in an identical translation in Toh 556.
This sūtra’s principal chapters are the third and fourth, which describe the lay bodhisattva Ruciraketu having a dream in which he sees a brightly shining golden drum. When a brahmin beats the drum, Ruciraketu hears in the drumbeats a hundred-verse prayer, and he subsequently recites that prayer to the Buddha.
Most of the following chapters are concerned with encouraging the recitation of this prayer and of the sūtra itself. They describe how various divine beings in this world revere the sūtra and promise to protect it and its adherents. These include the Four Mahārājas; Dṛḍhā, who is the goddess of the earth; Sarasvatī, the goddess of wisdom, learning, and music; Śrī, the goddess of good fortune; and the yakṣa general Saṃjñeya.
This sūtra emphasizes its importance for kings. It states that if they honor the reciters of this sūtra and arrange for its recitation and teaching, then their reign and their kingdom will prosper. They will avoid such calamities as invasion, famine, and so on. The sūtra also warns that if they fail to show such devotion, there will be disastrous results for both them and their kingdoms. Chapter 12 is dedicated to the subject of how to be a good king.
There are also chapters that deal with doctrine. Chapter 2 presents the view that a buddha never dies and so never passes into nirvāṇa. Therefore, there is no body and no physical relics of his body after his cremation, and so the Dharma never ceases to be taught. The passing of a buddha and the extinction of the Dharma are solely illusory manifestations, skillful methods to inspire beings to practice and to provide them with relics as objects for their devotion. Chapter 6 teaches the view of emptiness. Toh 555 and Toh 556 also contain chapters describing the nature of the three bodies and the ten bhūmis.
There are two narratives that describe previous lives of the Buddha. Chapter 16 describes the physician Jalavāhana, who, as a result of performing Dharma recitations while standing in a lake, ensured the rebirth of ten thousand fish into the paradise of Trāyastriṃśa. In the preceding chapter these same ten thousand devas receive the prophecy of their buddhahood. When the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā objects that they have not accomplished the necessary bodhisattva conduct in past lives to receive such a prophecy, the Buddha explains that this was unnecessary because they had devotion to this Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.
The other past-life narrative, which is given in chapter 18, is one of the most famous in Buddhist literature—that of the prince who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs. An interesting feature of the story in this sūtra is that much of the narrative is dedicated to an evocative description of the intense grief of parents who have lost their child, emphasizing the sorrow that the prince’s action has brought them.
As with other late Mahāyāna sūtras in which there is an emphasis on ritual, this text is classified in the Kangyur as a tantra, specifically as a Kriyā tantra, a class of tantras in which there is an emphasis on external ritual. The sūtra contains a description of how such rituals should be performed, and there are also passages that include lists of ingredients to place in a bath, along with mantras to recite while bathing, in order to achieve purification.
One can also see that the seed of the later maṇḍalas of the five buddha families is in this sūtra, for in chapters 2 and 3, buddhas of the four directions appear to a layman who has a visionary dream. They include Akṣobhya from the east and Amitābha from the west, both buddhas and their realms already established in the Buddhist tradition with specific sūtras dedicated to them. There also appear the buddhas Ratnaketu from the south and Dundubhisvara from the north, who in later tantras are usually named Ratnasaṃbhava and Amoghasiddhi. In this sūtra, the central buddha in terms of these directions would be Śākyamuni himself. In the Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra he is referred to as Vairocana, as the Buddha Vairocana is the buddha who manifests as all the buddhas throughout this trichiliocosm.
A version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light existed in India by the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, when it was translated into Chinese by Dharmakṣema (385–433) in 420, in a form that corresponds to the fragments of its translation into old Khotanese. The author of Precious Lamp of the Middle Way3 mentions that The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light contains profound teachings in the section on the absence of relics, this passage being within the chapter on the lifespan of the Buddha. The sūtra’s significance in Indian Buddhism is evident from the three tantras4 and ten commentaries5 that specify that it should be the text recited in one of the four directions when performing a maṇḍala rite. There are also five other texts in the Tengyur that emphasize the importance and status of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and its recitation,6 including Śāntideva’s eighth-century Śikṣāsamuccaya (Compendium of Training) in which he provides two extracts from the sūtra that should be recited. There are also two recitation texts composed of extracts from the sūtra.7
In addition to its importance for rites and recitations, the text is quoted on doctrinal points in Indian commentaries. Passages indicating that the Buddha never dies, leaves no relics, and that the Dharma never ceases are quoted in six texts,8 two of which9 cite the delightful verse that describes the impossibility of there being buddha relics, stating that there will be a buddha relic only when a ladder to the moon is built from rabbit horns.
The descriptions of buddha nature and the nature of the bodies of a buddha, which are only in Toh 555 and Toh 556, are quoted in two texts in the Tengyur, one written in Tibetan and one translated from Sanskrit by Rinchen Sangpo,10 although nothing is known about the author.
In Newar Buddhism, this sūtra became and remains one of the nine principal sūtras called “the nine Dharmas,”11 which are considered to be the most important lengthy sūtras to be recited and offered to.
Sanskrit manuscripts of this sūtra survived as fragments discovered in Chinese Central Asia (Xinjiang) and as entire texts in Nepal, where the title is Suvarṇabhāsottama, with bhāsa being a synonym for prabhāsa, both meaning “light.”
The Sanskrit text of the sūtra was first edited in 1898, in Calcutta, India, by S. C. Das and S. C. Shastri. That was followed by the edition by B. Nanjio and H. Idzumi in Japan in 1931, and by the edition by Johannes Nobel (1887–1960) in 1937. This translation refers to the 1967 S. Bagchi edition.
The widespread popularity of this sūtra outside India is also evident from its translation not only into Tibetan and Chinese but also from Sanskrit into Khotanese; from Chinese into Tibetan, Sogdian, Uighur, Tangut, and Manchu; and from Tibetan into Mongolian.
There are three surviving translations of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in Chinese. The earliest of these was translated by Dharmakṣema (385–433). He was an Indian who came to China in 414, living first in Dunhuang. Then in 420 he went to Guzang, the capital of Northern Liang, one of the sixteen independent states of that time, situated in what is now the Gansu region in China’s northwest. There he studied Chinese and engaged in translation under the patronage of Juqu Mengxun (368–433), the ruler of Northern Liang. He also had the reputation of being “a master of spells.” As a result of that reputation, Juqu Mengxun, toward the end of his reign, became afraid that Dharmakṣema might be used against him by his adversaries and so he had him assassinated.12 Nobel believed that the Sanskrit in its present form is not earlier than the mid-fifth century and that Dharmakṣema translated from an earlier version. This opinion appears to be supported by the Sanskrit manuscript fragments discovered in Khotan.13
The second surviving translation into Chinese is that by Bao Gui in 597. It is an amalgam of earlier translations that no longer exist and four chapters that were translated by Paramārtha (499–569). As there is no surviving Sanskrit for the additional chapters in the Chinese and Tibetan, Michael Radich has examined the evidence as to whether they are Indian or Chinese in origin.
The third translation was by Yijing (635–713), which was published in 703. Because of its clarity and writing style, this version became popular in China and was itself translated into Tibetan in the early ninth century. Yijing’s translation, compared to the Sanskrit and the Tibetan translation from Sanskrit, is freer, to the extent that Emmerick has stated it could not be used to reconstruct the original Sanskrit.14 Yijing spent thirty years in India and Sumatra and returned to China in 695. He brought with him four hundred Sanskrit texts, including The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and spent the first decade of the seventh century translating them.15
The Mogao caves of Dunhuang, which were sealed in the eleventh century, contained a great number of manuscripts of the sūtra, particularly those of Yijing’s translation into Chinese. The sūtra became popular for its teachings on freeing oneself from the effects of bad karma. For example, Yijing’s Chinese translation (and the Uighur and Tangut versions derived from it) has a preface that states how the sūtra saved Zhang Judao, ruler of Tangut, from going to hell because he had slaughtered cattle for a big feast. This narrative is illustrated in a twelfth-century Tangut woodcut that is preserved in St. Petersburg.16
The sūtra was of particular importance to monarchs, and starting in seventh-century Japan, the ritual of reciting this sūtra was considered important to perform for the benefit of the state.
Toh 557 (the version translated here) does not list its translators in the colophon. Toh 556 was produced by Jinamitra, Śilendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé in the early ninth century. Almost the entirety of Toh 557 is present word for word in Toh 556, so they either incorporated an earlier translation or extracted the shorter version from the longer.
By contrast, Toh 555 is a translation made by Gö Chödrup of Yijing’s Chinese version in the early ninth century. The Tibetan is clearer and more readable than in the other two versions, perhaps because it is less constrained by conforming to the Sanskrit, but also because the Chinese was a freer translation from the Sanskrit, which was done purposely to enhance its readability.
There are some Tibetan texts included in the Tengyur that were authored by those Tibetan translators active in the early ninth century. The translator Kawa Paltsek quotes from the passages describing the Dharma body and the Buddha not leaving any relics because he has no body with bones and blood.17 Yeshé Dé wrote a text that has a number of references to this sūtra’s teaching on the three bodies of a buddha, buddha nature, and the description of the bhūmis.18
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, also known as Atiśa, whose pupils founded the influential Kadampa tradition in Tibet, is the author of three of the texts in the Tengyur that refer to this sūtra, including his most famous work, A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, which contains an encouragement to use the sūtra’s prayer both for purification and as a dedication prayer.
The commentary in the Tengyur that quotes from the sūtra more than any other—twenty times in all—is the translation by Gö Chödrup of An Extensive Commentary on the Sūtra that Elucidates the Profound Intention by the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk19 (613–96), who had migrated to China. This commentary by Wŏnch’ŭk in Tibetan translation became a particular influence on the thought of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelukpa school.20 The sūtra has been quoted by great masters in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism and extracts from it were published in Tibet as numerous standalone texts—not only the confession prayer but also other chapters, such as the treatise on kingship. Its continuing significance is indicated by Pema Karpo (1527–92), the hierarch of the Drukpa Kagyü school, composing a confession prayer extracted from The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light at the request of Döndrup Dorjé, the ruler of Shigatsé.
An example of the way the sūtra was recited in Tibet is found in a version compiled by Ngawang Lobsang Chöden (1642–1714), the second Changkya Rinpoché.
Toh 556 and Toh 557 were both translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit. Only the Sanskrit that is equivalent to Toh 557 survives. It divides the equivalent of chapter 10 in the Tibetan into two, separating the homage to buddhas and bodhisattvas into its own small chapter. However, its final chapter is divided into two in the Tibetan, resulting in both having twenty-one chapters. Toh 556 appears to preserve passages that were lost from Toh 557. For example, chapter 12, “The King’s Treatise,” begins abruptly: “At that time…,” having evidently lost the introductory narrative—present in the equivalent chapter (chapter 20) in the longer version—that sets the action in a distant past.
Toh 555 was translated into Tibetan from Chinese.21 The source text was Yijing’s seventh-century translation from Sanskrit into Chinese, and therefore the translation differs throughout, even though the content is essentially the same. There are many passages that are actually shorter versions of those in the translations from Sanskrit. Its greater length compared to Toh 556 is primarily due to the addition of chapters 29 and 30.
In 1958, Nobel published a German translation based on Yijing’s Chinese text. In 1970, Ronald Emmerick produced an English translation of the Sanskrit. In 2007, Zopa Rinpoche’s FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition) produced an English translation of Toh 557.
The Buddha is on Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājaghṛa with a great assembly. He states that he will teach a sūtra that will free beings from various worldly sufferings through its being recited and listened to.
In the town of Rājaghṛa, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu wonders why the Buddha has only an eighty-year lifespan if he has no bad karma. His house miraculously transforms, and the buddhas of the four directions appear and tell him that the Buddha’s lifespan is, in fact, inconceivably long. At that time on Vulture Peak, the Kauṇḍinya brahmin Vyākaraṇa asks the Buddha that he be given a relic when the Buddha passes away so that he might make offerings to it. Sarvasattvapriyadarśana, a young man from the town of Vaiśalī, tells the Kauṇḍinya brahmin that the Buddha does not pass away and there will never be relics. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin states that he knew that but made his request so that the truth will be revealed that the appearance of passing away and relics is simply a skillful method to benefit beings.
In his home in Rājaghṛa, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu dreams of a brahmin beating a golden drum from which come verses that he is able to remember. He goes to the Buddha on Vulture Peak to repeat those verses to him.
This chapter comprises the hundred verses that Ruciraketu repeats to the Buddha. He describes hearing the verses in the dream. They begin with a prayer that they will benefit all beings, and then there are a number of verses of the confession of past bad actions followed by a praise of the Buddha, a prayer that beings be freed from suffering, and finally the dedication of merit so that the reciter will attain enlightenment.
The Buddha repeats to a goddess a praise of the buddhas in thirty-five verses made by a king in the distant past.
The Buddha recites verses that briefly describe emptiness, which, he states, he has taught extensively in other sūtras. He describes that he has practiced the path for a long time and that it is impossible to calculate his wisdom.
The Four Mahārājas, the protectors of the world, promise that they will protect whoever teaches and recites this sūtra and will dispel problems for the king of that country and its population. They and the Buddha describe the miraculous events that occur in the paradises when a king engages in the ritual of venerating the sūtra, and how all buddhas will congratulate him and prophesy his buddhahood. The Mahārājas describe how a king who wishes his realm to prosper and be happy should be devoted to the sūtra. Then they praise the Buddha in verse, and the Buddha praises the sūtra in verse.
The goddess Sarasvatī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra with wisdom and skills. She gives the recipe for a cleansing liquid and a mantra that will prevent misfortune. Then the Buddha praises her and teaches beneficial mantras. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin praises Sarasvatī in verse.
The goddess Śrī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra and its preservation so that beings will have good fortune. She states she had been a follower of the Buddha Ratnakusumaguṇasāgaravaiḍūryakanakagirisuvarṇakāñcanaprabhāsaśrī and that she brings good fortune to beings wherever she goes and inspires them to make offerings to that buddha. She dwells in a palace in the paradise of Alakāvati and states that offerings should be made to her and to that buddha. A mantra is taught for her invocation, and instructions for making offerings to her are given.
The chapter commences with a homage to a series of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Then Dṛḍhā, the goddess of the earth, promises the Buddha that she will come to wherever The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is taught, and with her head she will support the feet of the dharmabhāṇaka. Having heard the sūtra, she will make the earth fertile, and what is grown in it nutritious and life-enhancing, and the population will increase. She states that if someone who has heard the sūtra returns home and repeats even one line of verse from it, that home will prosper. The Buddha states that anyone who has listened to even one line of the sūtra or makes offerings to it will be reborn in a paradise after death, enjoy happiness for countless eons, and eventually attain buddhahood.
The yakṣa general Saṃjñeya promises to protect and defend whoever recites the sūtra. He describes his realization and wisdom and promises to endow the teachers of the sūtra with eloquence and physical health. He states that those who hear it will enjoy happiness in paradises for countless eons and eventually attain buddhahood.
After an homage to Buddha Ratnakusumaguṇasāgaravaiḍūryakanakagirisuvarṇakāñcanaprabhāsaśrī, Śākyamuni, Śrī, and Sarasvatī, the chapter begins abruptly and appears to omit the introduction that sets the narrative in the past, which is in a complete form in the other versions of the sūtra. At his enthronement, King Ruciraketu is told by his father, King Balendraketu, to learn the verse treatise on kingship called The Commitment of the Lord of Devas, and he recites it to him. The treatise explains why a king is called a deva even though he is a human: it is because a king is a deva sent to the human world to govern it. A king should therefore fulfill that duty, particularly by punishing the wicked. If he does not do so, calamities of all kinds will befall him and his kingdom. A righteous king will cause all kinds of good fortune to occur.
In this chapter, which is entirely in verse, the Buddha recounts a previous life as a cakravartin by the name of Susaṃbhava, who lived while the teaching of a buddha named Ratnaśikhin was still present. In a dream, he saw the dharmabhāṇaka Ratnoccaya teaching The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. He then sought out that dharmabhāṇaka and requested him to teach the sūtra, arranging a throne and many offerings to him. At the conclusion of the teaching, Susaṃbhava, through his possession of a wish-fulfilling jewel, caused a rain of jewels and necessities to fall on the four continents he ruled, and he made an offering of it all to the Three Jewels. Śākyamuni states that he was Susaṃbhava at that time, and that Ratnoccaya became the Buddha Akṣobhya. He states that it is through the merit of hearing the sūtra that he has been a cakravartin king and a lord of devas countless times and has finally attained enlightenment.
The Buddha instructs the goddess Śrī, first in prose and then in verse, on how someone should teach the sūtra and how someone should listen to it, and the benefits that will accrue from such activities. He adds that the throne upon which the sūtra has been recited will subsequently become the setting for various miraculous manifestations. The devas will praise those who teach and listen to the Dharma. In particular, the yakṣas will give their protection, as will nāgas, asuras, Hārītī and her sons, and the various goddesses, including Sarasvatī, Śrī, and the goddesses of the earth, harvests, and trees. This will bring bountiful harvests and a plenitude of fruits and flowers. Sūrya, the sun god, will also be pleased and will bring wonderful light to the world.
The goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā asks the Buddha about what merit had been accrued by the ten thousand devas from Trāyastriṃśa who came to hear the teaching on hearing the prophecies given to three people.
She describes the prophecy of the bodhisattva Ruciraketu becoming the Buddha Suvarṇaratnākaracchatrakūṭa in the distant future and how his son Rūpyaketu will become the Buddha Suvarṇajambudhvajakāñcanābha. After him, the other son Rūpyaprabha will be the Buddha Radiance of a Hundred Golden Lights. The goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā then states that Jvalanāntaratejorāja and the other ten thousand Trāyastriṃśa devas have not in their past lives had such great bodhisattva conduct as those three, and yet the Buddha has prophesied their becoming buddhas. The Buddha explains that they gained the necessary merit simply through hearing and believing in The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. In a future time, all ten thousand will attain buddhahood in the same world, and each one will have the name Prasannavadanotpalagandhakūṭa.
The Buddha tells the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā that in a distant past, when the Dharma of a buddha named Ratnaśikhin had disappeared, there was a virtuous king named Sureśvaraprabha. At that time, a head merchant by the name of Jaṭiṃdhara had a son by the name of Jalavāhana, who learned medicine from him and was able to cure the many illnesses prevalent in the kingdom.
The Buddha tells the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā that Jalavāhana had a wife, Jalāmbujagarbhā, and two sons, Jalāmbara and Jalagarbha. He and his sons went into the wilderness where they discovered a lake that was drying up so that the ten thousand fish in it were in danger of dying. A tree goddess appeared who told Jalavāhana that he should save the fish, so he constructed a shade made from branches for the fish. Then he went to King Sureśvaraprabha and obtained twenty elephants from him. and he used them to carry water to replenish the lake. He then sent his son Jalāmbara home to obtain as much food as possible, and he used that to feed the fish. Finally, he waded into the lake and recited the Dharma of dependent origination and the name of the Buddha Ratnaśikhin. At another time, he became intoxicated from alcohol and fell asleep. The ten thousand fish had died, and because of Jalavāhana’s recitation they had been reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise. They came to the sleeping Jalavāhana and made offerings of many pearls and caused flowers to rain on his home, upon the lake, and other places in the kingdom. The king summoned Jalavāhana, who believed these omens occurred because of the death of the fish. His son Jalāmbara went to the lake and saw that they had all died. The Buddha states that he was Jalavāhana; his father, Śuddhodana, was Jaṭiṃdhara, Jalavāhana’s father; his sons Rāhula and Ānanda were Jalāmbara and Jalagarbha, Jalavāhana’s sons; his wife Gopā was Jalāmbujagarbhā, Jalavāhana’s wife; his father-in-law, Daṇḍapāṇi, was the king; the ten thousand devas from Trāyastriṃśa were the ten thousand fish; and the goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā was the tree goddess.
The Buddha gives the goddess an account of when he went to the land of Pañcala with a thousand bhikṣus. He asked Ānanda to prepare a seat at a particular spot, and when he stamped the ground with his foot, a stūpa emerged. Inside were golden caskets containing bones. The Buddha tells the bhikṣus to pay homage to them, because these bones are from one of his previous lives, and it was through the sacrifice of his life that he was able to attain buddhahood. He relates that in the past, King Mahāratha had three sons, Mahāpraṇāda, Mahādeva, and Mahāsattva. The three princes wandered into a forest and saw a tigress that had given birth to five cubs but was starving and might soon eat her cubs. Mahāsattva decided to give his body to the tigress, and therefore, as they were leaving the forest, he told his brothers he would follow them later and turned back. He then cut his throat in front of the tigress and fell before her. The other two princes searched for their younger brother and discovered he had been eaten. The queen had nightmares and was distressed, thinking that something had happened to her sons. Therefore, the king and queen went in search of their sons and found the two princes, who told them of Mahāsattva’s death. In great distress, they went to his remains and placed them in the stūpa. The Buddha states that he was Mahāsattva. The story is then retold in verse, in which it is also stated that the Buddha’s father, Śuddhodana, was the king; his mother, Māya, was the queen; the two other princes were Maitreya and Mañjuśrī; the tigress was his stepmother, Mahāprajāpatī; and the tiger cubs were his first five bhikṣus.
Hundreds of thousands of bodhisattvas go to the Buddha Suvarṇaratnākaracchatrakūṭa and praise him in verse.
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu comes before the Buddha Śākyamuni and praises him in verse.
The goddess Bodhisattvasamuccayā praises the Buddha Śākyamuni in verse. The Buddha rises from his seat and says, “Well done!” and the multitudes of beings rejoice and praise his words.
This concludes “The Introduction,” the first chapter of “The Lord King of Sūtras, The Sublime Golden Light.”
Also, at that time, there dwelled in the great city of Rājagṛha[F.3.a] a bodhisattva mahāsattva by the name of Ruciraketu. He had served past jinas, had developed roots of merit, and had attended upon many hundreds of thousands of quintillions of buddhas. He thought, “Through what causes and what conditions does the Bhagavat Śākyamuni have such a short lifespan of eighty years?”
Then he thought, “The Bhagavat has said, ‘There are two causes and two conditions for a long life. What are those two? Forsaking killing and giving food.’ The Bhagavat Śākyamuni has forsaken killing and has correctly adopted the path of the ten good actions for countless hundreds of thousands of quintillions of eons. He has given external and internal substances as food to beings, even to the extent of satisfying hungry beings with his own body, blood, bones, and limbs, to say nothing of every other kind of food.”
When that sublime being’s mind had thought this, with his attention focused upon the Buddha, his house became immense, vast, and made of blue beryl. It was adorned by many divine jewels, its color transformed by the Tathāgata,34 and it was pervaded by a perfume that transcended the divine.
In the four directions of that house there appeared four thrones made of divine jewels. The thrones35 were overspread with layers36 of precious, divine cloth decorated with divine jewels.37
Upon those38 thrones appeared divine lotus flowers, their colors transformed by the Tathāgata,39 and adorned by many jewels. Upon those lotuses there appeared the four buddha bhagavats. To the east appeared the Tathāgata Akṣobhya. To the south appeared the Tathāgata Ratnaketu.[F.3.b] To the west appeared the Tathāgata Amitāyus. To the north appeared the Tathāgata Dundubhisvara. At the moment when those buddha bhagavats appeared upon those lion thrones, the great city of Rājagṛha was filled by a great illuminating light that spread throughout the trichiliocosm world realm,40 throughout as many world realms in the ten directions as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. A rain of flowers fell. There came the sound of divine music. Through the power of the Buddha, all beings in this trichiliocosm world realm gained divine happiness. The blind saw forms with their eyes; the deaf heard sounds with their ears; the insane gained their sanity; those with distracted minds became undistracted; the naked became clothed; the hungry had their stomachs filled; the thirsty had their thirst quenched; beings afflicted by illness were healed; and those with impaired physical faculties became possessed of complete faculties. In those worlds there appeared vast, astonishing, wonderful qualities.
The bodhisattva41 Ruciraketu was amazed to see those buddha bhagavats, and, filled with joy, delighted, elated, pleased, and happy, with his palms together in homage, he bowed toward those buddha bhagavats. Mindful of those buddha bhagavats and mindful of the qualities of the Buddha Bhagavat Śākyamuni, he had doubts concerning the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni.[F.4.a] In his mind was the thought, “Why is it that the Bhagavat Śākyamuni has this short lifespan of eighty years?”
Those buddha bhagavats were aware of and understood these thoughts and said to the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, “Noble son, do not think, ‘The Bhagavat Śākyamuni has such a short lifespan.’ Why is that? Noble son, except for the tathāgata arhat samyaksaṃbuddhas, we do not see anyone in the world with its devas, with its Māra, with its Brahmā, with its many beings who are mendicants and brahmins, and with its devas, humans, and asuras who has the ability to know the length of the Bhagavat Tathāgata Śākyamuni’s lifespan to its future limit.”
As soon as those buddha bhagavats described the Tathāgata’s lifespan, at that moment, through the power of the buddhas, the devas in the desire realm, the devas in the form realm, the nāgas, the yakṣas, the gandharvas, the asuras, the garuḍas, the kinnaras, the mahoragas, and the many hundreds of thousands of quintillions of assembled bodhisattvas arrived in the house of the bodhisattva Ruciraketu.
Those tathāgatas then recited verses that taught in brief the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni to that complete assembly:
At that time, in that assembly, there was the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa, who, together with countless thousands of brahmins, had made offerings to the Bhagavat.45 On hearing these words concerning the great nirvāṇa of the Tathāgata, he immediately wept,46 bowed down to the feet of the Bhagavat, and said to the Bhagavat, “If you have love for all beings, if you have great compassion, if you wish to benefit all beings, if you are a mother and father for all beings, if you are unequaled, if you are like the moon radiating light, if you are like a risen sun of great wisdom and knowledge, and if you look upon all beings as you do upon Rāhula, then I pray that you grant me something sacred.”
The Bhagavat remained silent.
Then, through the power of the Buddha, there arose confident eloquence in a Licchavī youth in that assembly, whose name was Sarvasattvapriyadarśana. He asked the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa, “Great brahmin, why do you ask the Bhagavat for something sacred? I will give you something sacred.”[F.5.a]
“Licchavī youth,” said the brahmin, “I wish for a relic of the Bhagavat the size of a mustard seed in order to make offerings to the Bhagavat. It is known that if one makes offerings to a relic the size of a mustard seed that one has received as a share of the ashes that are the relics of the Bhagavat, one will become the sole lord of the devas of Trāyastriṃśa.47
“O Licchavī youth, it is difficult for śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas to know The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. It is difficult for them to comprehend it. The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, which has those characteristics and qualities, is going to be spoken, so listen!48
“O Licchavī youth, The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is thus difficult to know and difficult to understand. Therefore, it is appropriate that we brahmins from an outlying island should keep a relic the size of a mustard seed in a casket, for by possessing it, beings will soon become lords of Trāyastriṃśa.
“O Licchavī youth, don’t you want to request a relic the size of a mustard seed from the Tathāgata, place the relic in a casket, and possess it so that beings will become lords of Trāyastriṃśa?
“O Licchavī youth, that is the sublime thing that I have requested.”
Then Sarvasattvapriyadarśana, the Licchavī youth, recited these verses to the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa:
On hearing those verses, the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa, replied to the Licchavī youth Sarvasattvapriyadarśana with these verses:
Then thirty-two thousand devas, having heard that profound teaching on the lifespan of the Tathāgata, all developed the aspiration for the highest, most complete enlightenment. With joyful mental thoughts and with one voice, they recited these verses:
Then the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, having heard the teaching on the lifespan of the Bhagavat Śākyamuni from both those buddha bhagavats and those excellent individuals, was filled with joy, delighted, elated, pleased, and happy—he was pervaded by great happiness and delight.
When this teaching on the lifespan of the tathāgatas was taught, innumerable, countless beings developed the aspiration for the highest, most complete enlightenment, and those tathāgatas vanished.[F.6.b]
This concludes “The Teaching on the Lifespan of the Tathāgata,” the second chapter of “The Lord King of Sūtras, The Sublime Golden Light.”
The bodhisattva Ruciraketu then went to sleep and in a dream saw a golden drum54 that was shining brightly like the disk of the sun. In all directions, there were countless, innumerable buddha bhagavats seated upon precious beryl thrones at the foot of precious trees, encircled by assemblies of many hundreds of thousands. Looking straight ahead, they were teaching the Dharma.
Then he saw a person who appeared to be a brahmin beating that drum, and he heard a teaching in verse come from the drumbeats.
As soon as the bodhisattva Ruciraketu awoke from his sleep, he remembered the verses that were taught. Having remembered them, when the night was over, he left the city of Rājagṛha, and together with many thousands of people he went to Vulture Peak Mountain and into the presence of the Bhagavat. He bowed down to the feet of the Bhagavat and circumambulated the Bhagavat three times, keeping him to his right, and then sat down to one side.
Seated to one side, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, with his palms together in homage, bowed toward the Bhagavat and recited the teaching in verse that he had heard from the sound of the drum in his dream.
This concludes “The Dream,” the third chapter of “The Lord King of Sūtras, The Sublime Golden Light.”
(1) The Root Manual of the Rites of Mañjuśrī (Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, Toh 543), 2.129; (2) ral pa gyen brdzes kyi rtog pa chen po, byang chub sems dpa’ chen po’i rnam par ’phrul pa le’u rab ’byams las bcom ldan ’das ma ’phags ma sgrol ma’i rtsa ba’i rtog pa (Ūrdhvajaṭā-mahākalpamahābodhisattvavikurvaṇapaṭalavisarā bhagavatī āryatārāmūlakalpa), Toh 724, folio 238.a; (3) dkyil ’khor thams cad kyi spyi’i cho ga gsang ba’i rgyud (Sarvamaṇḍalasāmānyavidhiguhyatantra), Toh 806, folio 152.b;.
(1) Vinayadatta, sgyu ’phrul chen mo’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga bla ma’i zhal snga’i man ngag (Gurūpadeśanāmamahāmāyāmaṇḍalopāyikā), Toh 1645, folio 209.a; (2) Bhavyakīrti, sgron ma gsal bar byed pa dgongs pa rab gsal zhes bya ba bshad pa’i ti ka (Pradīpoddyotanābhisaṃdhiprakāśikānāmavyākhyāṭīkā), Toh 1793, folio 201.a; (3) Pramuditākaravarman, gsang ba ’dus pa rgyud kyi rgyal po’i bshad pa zla ba’i ’od zer (Guhyasamājatantrarājaṭīkācandraprabhā), Toh 1852, folio 169.b; (4) Vitapāda, gsang ba ’dus pa’i dkyil ’khor gyi sgrub pa’i thabs rnam par bshad pa (Guhyasamājamaṇḍalopāyikāṭīkā), Toh 1873, folio 209.a; (5) Ānandagarbha, rdo rje dbyings kyi dkyil ’khor chen po’i cho ga rdo rje thams cad ’byung ba (Vajradhātumahāmaṇḍalopāyikāsarvavajrodaya), Toh 2516, folio 50.a; (6) Anonymous, ’jam pa’i rdo rje ’byung ba’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga sems can thams cad kyi bde ba bskyed pa (Mañjuvajrodayamaṇḍalopāyikāsarvasattvahitāvahā). Toh 2590; (7) Kāmadhenu, ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba cho ga zhib mo’i rgyal po chen po’i rgya cher ’grel pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājanāmamahākalparājaṭīkā), Toh 2625; (8) Ānandagarbha, de bzhin gshegs pa dgra bcom pa yang dag par rdzogs pa’i sangs rgyas ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba’i bshad pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājatathāgatārhatsamyaksaṃbuddhanāmakalpaṭīkā), Toh 2628, folio 73.a; (9) Sthiramati, rgyan dam pa sna tshogs rim par phye ba bkod pa (Paramālaṃkāraviśvapaṭalavyūha), Toh 2661, folio 322.b; (10) Sahajalalita. kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba de bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi snying po dang dam tshig la rnam par blta ba zhes bya ba’i gzungs kyi rnam par bshad pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsasarvatathāgatahṛdayasamayavilokitanāmadhāraṇīvṛtti), Toh 2688, folio 292.b.
(1) Bodhisattva, kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba’i gzungs bklag cing chod rten brgya rtsa brgyad dam mchod rten lnga gdab pa’i cho ga mdo sde las btus pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsadhāraṇīvacanasūtrāntoddhṛtāṣṭottaraśatacaityāntarapañcacaityanirvapaṇavidhi), Toh 3068, folios 145.a, 151.b, 153.b; (2) Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, dbu ma’i man ngag rin po che’i za ma tog kha phye ba zhes bya ba (Ratnakaraṇḍodghāṭanāmamadhyamakopadeśa), Toh 3930, folios 99.a, 115.a; (3) Śāntideva, bslab pa kun las btus pa (Śikṣāsamuccaya), Toh 3940, folios 3.a–194.b, 90.a–91.b, 122.a–123.b; (4) Vairocanarakṣita, bslab pa me tog snye ma (Śikṣākusumamañjarī), Toh 3943, folio 200.a; (5) Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, byang chub lam gyi sgron ma’i dka’ ’grel (Bodhimārgapradīpapañjikā), Toh 3948, folio 20.b.
(1) Anonymous, gser ’od dam pa mdo sde dbang po’i smon lam (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrapraṇidhāna), Toh 4379; (2) Anonymous, rgyal po gser gyi lag pa’i smon lam (Rājasuvarṇabhujapraṇidhāna), Toh 4380.
(1) Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, mngon par rtogs pa rnam par ’byed pa (Abhisamayavibhaṅga), Toh 1490, folio 201.a; (2) Āryadeva, spyod pa bsdud pa’i sgron ma (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa), Toh 1803, folio 106.a; (3) Mañjuśrīkīrti, ’jam dpal gyi mtshan yang dag par brjod pa’i rgya cher bshad pa (Mañjuśrīnāmasaṃgītiṭīkā), Toh 2534, folio 217.b; (4) Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa’i bshad pa mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi snang ba (Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāvyākhyānābhisamayālaṃkārāloka), Toh 3791, folio 84.b; (5) Dharmakīrtiśrī, shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan zhes bya ba’i ’grel pa rtogs par dka’ ba’i snang ba zhes bya ba’i ’grel bshad (Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstravṛttidurbodhālokanāmaṭīkā), Toh 3794, folio 152.b; (6) Dharmamitra, shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi tshig le’ur byas pa’i ’grel bshad tshig rab tu gsal ba (Abhisamayālaṃkārakārikāprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstraṭīkāprasphuṭapadā), Toh 3796, folio 104.a.
(1) Ekādaśanirghoṣa, rdo rje ’chang chen po’i lam gyi rim pa’i man ngag bdud rtsi gsang ba (Mahāvajradharapathakramopadeśāmṛtaguhya), Toh 1823, folio 274.a; (2) Yeshé Dé, lang kar gshegs pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo’i ’grel pa de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po’i rgyan (Laṅkāvatāranāmamahāyānasūtravṛttitathāgatahṛdayālaṃkāra), Toh 4019, folios 29.a, 29.b, 152.b, 279.b, 302.a.
Termed the Navadharma (“Nine Dharmas”) or Navagrantha (“Nine Texts”), these works are (1) Prajñāpāramitā, (2) Gaṇḍavyūha, (3) Daśabhūmi, (4) Samādhirāja, (5) Laṅkāvatāra, (6) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, (7) Lalitavistara, (8) Suvarṇaprabhāsa, and (9) Tathāgatagūhya. See Lewis 1993, p. 327, n. 15.
Paltsek, gsung rab rin po che’i gtam rgyud dang śākya’i rabs rgyud, Toh 4357, folios 273.a and 331.b.
Yeshe Dé, lang kar gshegs pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo’i ’grel pa de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po’i rgyan (Laṅkāvatāranāmamahāyānasūtravṛttitathāgatahṛdayālaṃkāra), Toh 4019, folios 29.a, 29.b, 152.b, 279.b, 302.a.
This is his name as given in The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (p. 996). His name is variously given elsewhere as Wonchuk, Wen Tshig, Yüan ts’e, Yuan Tso, and in Tibetan translation as Dzoksal (rdzog gsal).
No Sanskrit title is given since this version was translated from the Chinese. The rendering of the Chinese title varies in different editions of the Kangyur. The Degé has tā shin kyin kwang myutsa’i shin wang kyin. The Yongle has ta’i ching gim gom mang dza’i shing wang gyi. The Kangxi has ta’i ching gin grom ming dza’i shing wang gying. The Narthang reads de’i shing ki ma kwang med dzwa’i shing wang kyang. The Lhasa version has tā shin kyin kwang mya ru tsa’i shin wa da kyin. These appear to be variants as a result of differing regional pronunciations and scribal corruptions of what would now be written as Da cheng jin guang ming zui sheng wang jing 大乘金光明最勝王經. Zhiyi 智顗 (538–97), a.k.a. Tian tai zhi da shi 天台智者大師, writing in his commentary on this sūtra titled Jin guang ming jing xuan yi 金光明經玄義, cited Paramārtha (a.k.a. Zhen di 真諦) in giving the Sanskrit pronunciation of the title of the sūtra as Xiu ba na po po po yu do mo yin tuo luo zhe yue na xiu duo luo 修跋拏婆頗婆欝多摩因陀羅遮閱那修多羅, presumably transcribing Suvarṇaprabhāsottamarājasūtraṃ. The CBETA collection appears to concur.
In the Sanskrit version of this text, this phrase is part of the first verse, while in the Tibetan, keeping to the traditional phraseology, has more syllables than the following lines. There have been two ways to interpret this traditional beginning of a sūtra, with such Indian masters as Kamalaśīla claiming that both are equally correct. The alternative interpretation is “Thus did I hear: at one time, the Bhagavān…” and so on. The various arguments, both traditional and modern, for either side are given by Brian Galloway in “Thus Have I Heard: At one time…” Indo-Iranian Journal 34, Issue 2 (April 1991): 87–104.
At this point, the Buddha’s words begin abruptly. The Sanskrit has four lines of verse compared to the Tibetan’s three: “I will teach that which is blessed, / Which is the supreme domain of good fortune, / Which has the purpose of annihilating all evil, / And which brings an end to all evil.” Because of Tibetan syntax, the first line of this verse occurs at the end of the following verse.
The Sanskrit has tridaśendra (“Lords of the Thirty”) referring to the Trāyastriṃśa paradise on the summit of Meru. It is ruled by Indra, who is often referred to as “Devendra, lord of devas.” The Sanskrit is in the plural, which is not evident in the Tibetan. This line refers to Brahmā and Indra, but in the plural it apparently refers to a number of such principal deities from other worlds.
In the Sanskrit, the last three lines of this verse read: “With the greatly powerful lords of the kinnaras, / And similarly with the lords of the garuḍas / And the hosts of yakṣas, gandharvas, and pannas (serpents, i.e., nāgas).”
According to the Sanskrit kṛta. The Yongle, Kangxi, Narthang, and Toh 556 have bsod nams byed. The Degé version of Toh 557 has bsod nams med (“without merit”).
According to the Sanskrit svāgatam (literally, “well come”), which was translated into Tibetan as legs par ’ongs. This could be interpreted as “come well among humans.” Toh 555 interprets this as meaning a good rebirth among humans.
According to the Tibetan. The Sanskrit has “will easily attain a human result,” which presumably means the result of becoming human.
This obscure compound, in Sanskrit tathāgatavigrahaṃ (“tathāgata form” or “tathāgata beauty”), with no indication as to whether tathāgata is singular or plural, was translated into Tibetan here with interpolation as de bzhin gshegs pas kha dog bsgyur ba (“color transformed by the Tathāgata”). In Sanskrit it is evident that this is an adjective for the house. The Tibetan does at times use kha dog to translate varṇa when it does not mean color specifically but form and shape. In Toh 555, it has been interpreted to mean that the house has the appearance of a buddha realm through the blessing of the Buddha.
From the Sanskrit divyaratnapuṣpapatraiḥ. The Tibetan has the less specific bcos bu’i rin po che’i phrugs.
This obscure compound—in Sanskrit tathāgatavigraha (“tathāgata form” or “tathāgata beauty”)—was translated into Tibetan with interpolation as de bzhin gshegs pas kha dog [bsgyur ba] (“colors [transformed by] the Tathāgata”). Toh 555 interprets this to mean “their sizes were in proportion to those of the tathāgatas.”
The Degé here has “throughout all the world realms in the ten directions,” which appears to be a scribal error of repetition and is absent from the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, and Choné versions of Toh 557, from Toh 556, and from the Sanskrit.
According to the Tibetan. The Sanskrit has saṃkhya (“numbers”) instead of asaṃkhya (“countless”).
This line shows significant variation across sources and is difficult to interpret precisely. Toh 556 and Toh 557 render this figure’s name as slob dpon lung ston pa bram ze kauN+Di n+ya, which can be interpreted to mean “the Kauṇḍinya brahmin, the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa.” The extant Sanskrit reads ācāryavyākaraṇaprāptaḥ kauṇḍinyo nāma brāhmaṇaḥ, which could be taken to mean “The brahmin named Kauṇḍinya who had obtained a prophecy from a/the Dharma master.” The Sanskrit line includes the term “obtained” (prāpta), which is not attested in the Chinese or Tibetan sources. The translation here follows the Chinese text that is the basis of Toh 555 in regarding kauṇḍinya as the brahmin’s family name (姓). This brahmin is then “named (名曰) the Dharma master Vyākaraṇa (法師授記).” The Tibetan sources for Toh 555 appear to take kauṇḍinya as the brahmin’s proper name and treat the rest of the phrase as descriptive, reading “The brahmin named Kauṇḍinya who was prophesied by a/the Dharma master (bram ze kauN+Di n+ya chos kyi slob dpon gyis lung bstan pa). To further complicate matters, the Degé version of Toh 555 also declines kauṇḍinya in the instrumental, which would result in the reading “the brahmin prophesied by the Dharma master Kauṇḍinya.” The Kangxi, Lhasa, Narthang, Stok Palace, and Yongle versions of Toh 555 lack this instrumental declension.
According to Toh 555, Toh 556, and the Yongle, Kangxi, and Narthang versions of Toh 557, which have ngus. The Degé version of Toh 557 has ’dus (“gathered”). The Sanskrit has utthāya (“stood up”).
In this instance, the Sanskrit version of that paradise’s name is tridaśa (“thirty” instead of “thirty-three”).
This paragraph may be a remnant of the Licchavī youth’s response to the brahmin, which is here assigned to the brahmin instead. Although missing in both Toh 556 and Toh 557, the Licchavī’s response was evidently once present as can be seen from the brahmin’s response to it, where he refers to “such characteristics and qualities.” This paragraph is present in Toh 555: “The youth then said to the brahmin, ‘If you wish to be reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise and enjoy the perfect ripening of karma, then you should listen, with single-pointed mind, to The Supremely Victorious King of Sūtras, the Sublime Golden Light. This sūtra is supreme among all sūtras, and therefore it is difficult to know and to penetrate. Therefore, the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are unable to comprehend it. This sūtra gives rise to the limitless ripening of the results of merit and accomplishes that until the attainment of the highest enlightenment. Today I have taught you just a little portion of that subject.’ ”
The Sanskrit has nirmitakāya, which is synonymous with nirmāṇakāya. Both are translated in Tibetan as sprul pa’i sku.
According to the Tibetan bdag gis, presumably from the Sanskrit mayā. The available Sanskrit has mune (“from the Muni” or “of the Muni”).
According to the Sanskrit atandrena. The Tibetan translates as g.yel ba med pa, which usually means “undistracted,” although that does not appear to be the meaning here.
According to the Sanskrit yāmaloka, which denotes the realm of the pretas. This is normally translated into Tibetan gshin rje’i ’jig rten (“the world of the lord of death”). Apparently due to a lack of space in the verse, the Tibetan omitted ’jig rten (“world”).
According to the Sanskrit tāruṇya and the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, and Choné gzhon pa. The Degé has bzhon pa (“steed” or “vehicle”).
This verse is absent in the Sanskrit and Chinese, but it is present in the Tibetan and quoted as being from this sūtra by Śāntideva in his Śikṣāsamuccaya.
According to the Tibetan byang bgyid pa. Toh 556 has byang byed pa. The Sanskrit has kṣaya (“eliminate”).
According to the Tibetan. The Sanskrit has deśayiṣye imāṃ dharmāṃ svarṇaprabhāmanuttarām | ye śṛṇvanti śubhāṃ teṣāṃ saṃyāntu pāpasaṃkṣayam (“I will teach this Dharma, / The Sublime Golden Light, / And those who listen to this goodness / Will have their bad karma eliminated”).
Although the Tibetan translated this as a “source of jewels,” the Sanskrit is ratnākara could also mean “form,” “shape,” or “multitude” of jewels. In the translation of this verse in Toh 555, it was interpreted to mean that the ten bhūmis are “the most perfect jewels.” No version translated ratna as dkon mchog (which would mean “the Three Jewels”).
Toh 556 has: “May the qualities of a buddha appear / And may I liberate others from the ocean of existence.”
According to the Tibetan. The Sanskrit has the equivalent of these four lines in three, with the fourth line translating as “And free me from fear.”
Toh 556 translates as “wherever it is that I go.” Toh 555 translates as “the four kinds of physical actions.”
According to the Tibetan, apparently translating from mala. The present Sanskrit has phala (“the result”).
According to the Tibetan. The Sanskrit has dveṣamohatamasaṃkaṭair (“the deep darkness of ignorance and anger)”.
According to the Tibetan ngal ba, presumably translating from the Sanskrit āyāsa. The available Sanskrit has akṣaya (“unceasing”).
According to the Tibetan. The Sanskrit has suvarṇavarṇānavabhāsitadigantān (“who are golden in color, illuminating to the ends of the directions”).
According to the Tibetan skoms. The Sanskrit has saṃtāraya (“to bring across” or “to liberate from”).
According to the Sanskrit, Toh 555, and rga in the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, and Choné versions of Toh 556. The Degé version of Toh 557 has rgal (“cross over”).
According to the Sanskrit nominative case, Toh 556 (which has ni), and the Lithang, Yongle, and Kangxi versions of Toh 557, which have the instrumental gis, which would have the same translation. The Degé version of Toh 557 has the genitive gi (“through my good karma”).
According to Narthang and Toh 556 de ring (“today”) and the Sanskrit saṃpratam (“in the present”). The Degé has de’u re (“a little”).
According to the Tibetan zas skom, presumably translating from anna. The available Sanskrit has śānta (“peace”).
According to the Tibetan. In the Sanskrit the final line has dharmasya bodhipratisaṃsthitasya (“to the Dharma that is established in enlightenment”).
According to the Tibetan dal ba’i rgyal po, presumably translating from jihyarāja. The available Sanskrit has jinarājamurti (“meeting the king of jinas”).
Toh 556 translates as “and may they attain freedom from suffering.” The Sanskrit has upajā (“may they eventually be liberated”).
According to the Sanskrit, Toh 556, and the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, Narthang, and Choné versions of Toh 557. The Degé version of Toh 557 has ma yin instead of pa yin, and therefore translates as “not in the presence of…”
According to the Tibetan, which presumably translates prabhūta. The Sanskrit has prabhāsita (“shines with a golden color”).
According to the Tibetan. The Sanskrit has surāsurasusvara: (“The lovely sounds of the suras and asuras”).
Albizia lebbeck. A tall tree that can grow to 100 feet. Other common names include Indian walnut, lebbeck, lebbeck tree, flea tree, frywood, koko, and "woman’s tongue tree." The bark is used medicinally.
These palaces served as both residences and vehicles for deities.
Amyris agallocha. Also called agallochum and aloeswood. This is a resinous heartwood that has been infected by the fungus Phialophora parasitica. In India, agarwood is primarily derived from the fifteen Aquilaria (Aquilaria malaccensis) and nine Gyrinops species of lign-aloe trees.
Twelfth of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination.
Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.
The kingdom of yakṣas located on Mount Sumeru and ruled over by Kubera, also known as Vaiśravaṇa.
The buddha of the western buddhafield of Sukhāvatī, where fortunate beings are reborn to make further progress toward spiritual maturity. Amitābha made his great vows to create such a realm when he was a bodhisattva called Dharmākara. In the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, popular in East Asia, aspiring to be reborn in his buddha realm is the main emphasis; in other Mahāyāna traditions, too, it is a widespread practice. For a detailed description of the realm, see The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī, Toh 115. In some tantras that make reference to the five families he is the tathāgata associated with the lotus family.
Amitābha, “Infinite Light,” is also known in many Indian Buddhist works as Amitāyus, “Infinite Life.” In both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions he is often conflated with another buddha named “Infinite Life,” Aparimitāyus, or “Infinite Life and Wisdom,”Aparimitāyurjñāna, the shorter version of whose name has also been back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit as Amitāyus but who presides over a realm in the zenith. For details on the relation between these buddhas and their names, see The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1) Toh 674, i.9.
The Buddha in the western realm of Sukhāvatī, better known by his alternative name Amitābha. Not to be confused with the buddha of long life, Aparimitāyus, whose name has been rendered in Sanskrit as Amitāyus also. See also “Amitābha.”
The nectar of immortality possessed by the devas, it is used as a metaphor for the teaching that brings liberation.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
A nāga king.
According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.
A fierce goddess.
(Toh 556 Degé: dung can; Toh 555: dung chen; Toh 555 Narthang: rung chen)
The Sanskrit ārya has the general meaning of a noble person, one of a higher class or caste. In Buddhist literature, depending on the context, it often means specifically one who has gained the realization of the path and is superior for that reason. In particular, it applies to stream enterers, once-returners, non-returners, and worthy ones (arhats) and is also used as an epithet of bodhisattvas. In the five-path system, it refers to someone who has achieved at least the path of seeing (darśanamārga).
The name of a certain kind of kalpa, literally meaning “incalculable.” The number of years in this kalpa differs in various sūtras that give a number. Also, twenty intermediate kalpas are said to be one asaṃkhyeya (incalculable) kalpa, and four incalculable kalpas are one great kalpa. In that case, those four incalculable kalpas represent the eons of the creation, presence, destruction, and absence of a world. Buddhas are often described as appearing in a second incalculable kalpa.
The seven branches of enlightenment are mindfulness, analysis of phenomena, diligence, joy, tranquility, samādhi, and equanimity.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
A yakṣa king.
A lake in a wilderness.
(Toh 556: ’brog khong khong na yod)
These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).
In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.
In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
The classical system of Indian medicine.
A king in the distant past.
Bhagji Sanskrit: Baladaketu; Toh 557
An asura king. Indian literary sources describe how Bali wrested control of the world from the devas, establishing a period of peace and prosperity with no caste distinction. Indra requested Viṣṇu to use his wiles to gain back the world from him for the devas. Viṣṇu appeared as a dwarf asking for two steps of ground, was offered three, and then traversed the world in two steps. Bali, remaining faithful to his promise, accepted the banishment of the asuras into the underworld. A great Bali festival in his honor is held annually in South India.
(Toh 555: ba li)
Commiphora wighti, or Commiphora mukul. The resin, also known as guggul gum, is obtained from the bark of the tree. When burned, the smoke is said to drive away evil spirits.”
Tenth of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination.
As this is distinguished from gorocanā (“cow bezoar”), this may be bezoar obtained from the head of an elephant, in distinction from that obtained from a cow. Used in Āyurveda for both external and oral application in treating worm infestation, pruritus (itching), psychiatric disorders, low digestion strength, and more.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
See “bhagavat.”
As specified in the Sanskrit, a conical or bowl-shaped kettledrum, with an upper surface that is beaten with sticks. The Tibetan and Chinese are not specific about the kind of drum it is.”
The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity.
In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).
The term bhikṣuṇī, often translated as “nun,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term bhikṣu (to which the female grammatical ending ṇī is added) literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist nuns and monks—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a bhikṣuṇī follows 364 rules and a bhikṣu follows 253 rules as part of their moral discipline.
For the first few years of the Buddha’s teachings in India, there was no ordination for women. It started at the persistent request and display of determination of Mahāprajāpatī, the Buddha’s stepmother and aunt, together with five hundred former wives of men of Kapilavastu, who had themselves become monks. Mahāprajāpatī is thus considered to be the founder of the nun’s order.
Literally the “grounds” in which qualities grow, and also meaning “levels.” Here it refers specifically to levels of enlightenment, especially the ten levels of the bodhisattvas.
This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.
Momordica monadelpha. A perennial climbing plant, the fruit of which is a bright red gourd. Because of its color it is frequently used in poetry as a simile for lips.
Eleventh of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination.
Parmelia perlata. A lichen used as a spice and in Āyurveda for the treatment of skin diseases, cough, asthma, kidney stones, painful urination, and localized swelling. Commonly called śaileya in Sanskrit.
More commonly known as the Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis).
The place where the Buddha Śākyamuni achieved awakening and where every buddha will manifest the attainment of buddhahood. In our world this is understood to be located under the Bodhi tree, the Vajrāsana, in present-day Bodhgaya, India. It can also refer to the state of awakening itself.
The term can be understood to mean “great courageous one” or "great hero,” or (from the Sanskrit) simply “great being,” and is almost always found as an epithet of “bodhisattva.” The qualification “great” in this term, according to the majority of canonical definitions, focuses on the generic greatness common to all bodhisattvas, i.e., the greatness implicit in the bodhisattva vow itself in terms of outlook, aspiration, number of beings to be benefited, potential or eventual accomplishments, and so forth. In this sense the mahā- is closer in its connotations to the mahā- in “Mahāyāna” than to the mahā- in “mahāsiddha.” While individual bodhisattvas described as mahāsattva may in many cases also be “great” in terms of their level of realization, this is largely coincidental, and in the canonical texts the epithet is not restricted to bodhisattvas at any particular point in their career. Indeed, in a few cases even bodhisattvas whose path has taken a wrong direction are still described as bodhisattva mahāsattva.
Later commentarial writings do nevertheless define the term—variably—in terms of bodhisattvas having attained a particular level (bhūmi) or realization. The most common qualifying criteria mentioned are attaining the path of seeing, attaining irreversibility (according to its various definitions), or attaining the seventh bhūmi.
A goddess. In Toh 555 called “goddess of the Bodhi tree.”
A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).
In addition to being the name of the great deity, “Brahmā” (sometimes “Mahābrahmā”) can mean all the devas that live in Brahmā’s paradise.
A member of the highest of the four castes in Indian society, which is closely associated with religious vocations.
The Tibetan translates both stūpa and caitya with the same word, mchod rten, meaning “basis” or “recipient” of “offerings” or “veneration.” Pali: cetiya.
A caitya, although often synonymous with stūpa, can also refer to any site, sanctuary or shrine that is made for veneration, and may or may not contain relics.
A stūpa, literally “heap” or “mound,” is a mounded or circular structure usually containing relics of the Buddha or the masters of the past. It is considered to be a sacred object representing the awakened mind of a buddha, but the symbolism of the stūpa is complex, and its design varies throughout the Buddhist world. Stūpas continue to be erected today as objects of veneration and merit making.
“Circular mass”; there are at least three interpretations of what this name refers to. In the Kṣitigarbha Sutra it is a mountain that contains the hells. In that case, it is equivalent to the Vaḍaba submarine mountain of fire, which is also said to be the entrance to the hells. More commonly, it is the name of the outer ring of mountains at the edge of the flat disk that is the world, with Sumeru in the center. This is also equated with Vaḍaba, as it is the heat of the mountain range that evaporates the ocean, thus preventing it from overflowing. Jambudvīpa, the world of humans, is a continent in the ocean to Sumeru’s south. However, Cakravāḍa is also used to mean the entire disk, including Meru and the paradises above it. An alternate form is Cakravāla.
An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13.
Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.
Cassia fistula. An Indian tree with pods that are used medicinally.
A fierce goddess.
(Toh 555: ma rungs pa)
The lowest and most disparaged class of people within the caste system of ancient India, they fall outside of the caste system altogether due to their low rank in society.
A fierce goddess.
(Toh 555: gdug pa)
gser ’od dam pa’i mdo. Toh 555, Degé Kangyur vol. 89 (rgyud ’bum, pa), folios 19.a–151a. English translation The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (1) 2023.
gser ’od dam pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarājanāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 556, Degé Kangyur vol. 89 (rgyud ’bum, pa), folios 151.b–273.a. English translation The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (2) 2024.
gser ’od dam pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarājanāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 557, Degé Kangyur vol. 90 (rgyud ’bum, pha), folios 1.a–62.a.
dkyil ’khor thams cad kyi spyi’i cho ga gsang ba’i rgyud (Sarvamaṇḍalasāmānyavidhiguhyatantra). Toh 806, Degé Kangyur vol. 96 (rgyud, wa), folios 141.a–167.b.
’jam dpal gyi rtsa ba’i rgyud (Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa). Toh 543, Degé Kangyur vol.88 (rgyud, na), folios 105.a–351.a. English translation The Root Manual of the Rites of Mañjuśrī 2020.
’od srung kyi le’u zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Kāśyapaparivartanāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 87, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 119.b–151.b.
ral pa gyen brdzes kyi rtog pa chen po byang chub sems dpa’ chen po’i rnam par ’phrul pa le’u rab ’byams las bcom ldan ’das ma ’phags ma sgrol ma’i rtsa ba’i rtog pa zhes bya ba (Ūrdhvajaṭāmahākalpamahābodhisattvavikurvaṇapaṭalavisarā bhagavatī āryatārāmūlakalpanāma). Toh 724, Degé Kangyur vol. 93 (rgyud, tsa), folios 205.b–311.a, and vol. 94 (rgyud, tsha), folios 1.a–200.a.
blo gros mi zad pas zhus pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Akṣayamatiparipṛcchānāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 89, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 175.b–182.b.
lang kar gshegs pa’i theg pa chen po’i mdo (Laṅkāvatāramahāyānasūtra). Toh 107, Degé Kangyur vol. 49 (mdo sde, ca), folios 56.a–191.b.
las kyi sgrib pa gcod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Karmāvaraṇapratipraśrabdhināmamahāyānasūtra) Toh 219, Degé Kangyur vol. 62 (mdo sde, tsha), folios 297.b–307.a. English translation Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations 2024.
Ajitaśrībhadra. dga’ ba’i bshes gnyen gyi rtogs pa (Nandamitrāvadāna). Toh 4146, Degé Tengyur vol. 269 (’dul ba, su), folios 240.a–244.b.
Ānandagarbha. rdo rje dbyings kyi dkyil ’khor chen po’i cho ga rdo rje thams cad ’byungs ba (Vajradhātumahāmaṇḍalopāyikāsarvavajrodaya). Toh 2516, Degé Tengyur vol. 62 (rgyud, ku), folios 1.a–50.a.
Anonymous. rgyal po gser gyi lag pa’i smon lam (Rājasuvarṇabhujapraṇidhāna). Toh 4380, Degé Tengyur vol. 309 (sna tshogs, nyo), folios 309b–310a.
Anonymous. ’jam pa’i rdo rje ’byung ba’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga sems can thams cad kyi bde ba bskyed pa (Mañjuvajrodayamaṇḍalopāyikāsarvasattvahitāvahā). Toh 2590, Degé Tengyur vol. 65 (rgyud, ngu), folios 225.a–274.a.
Anonymous. gser ’od dam pa mdo sde dbang po’i smon lam (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrapraṇidhāna). Toh 4379, Degé Tengyur vol. 309 (sna tshogs, nyo), folios 304.b–309.b.
Āryadeva. spyod pa bsdud pa’i sgron ma (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa). Toh 1803, Degé Tengyur vol. 65 (rgyud, ngi), folios 57.a–106.b.
Bhavya. dbu ma rin po che’i sgron ma (Madhyamakaratnapradīpa). Toh 3854, Degé Tengyur vol. 199 (dbu ma, tsha), folios 259.b–289.a.
Bhavyakīrti. sgron ma gsal bar byed pa dgongs pa rab gsal zhes bya ba bshad pa’i ti ka (Pradīpoddyotanābhisaṃdhiprakāśikānāmavyākhyāṭīkā). Toh 1793, Degé Tengyur vols. 32–33 (rgyud, ki), folios 1.b–292.a, and (rgyud, khi), folios 1.b–155.a.
Bodhisattva. kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba’i gzungs bklag cing chod rten brgya rtsa brgyad dam mchod rten lnga gdab pa’i cho ga mdo sde las btus pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsadhāraṇīvacanasūtrāntoddhṛtāṣṭottaraśatacaityāntarapañcacaityanirvapaṇavidhi). Toh 3068, Degé Tengyur vol. 74 (rgyud, pu), folios 140.a–153.a.
Buddhānandagarbha. de bzhin gshegs pa dgra bcom pa yang dag par rdzogs pa’i sangs rgyas ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba’i bshad pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājatathāgatārhatsamyaksaṃbuddhanāmakalpaṭīkā). Toh 2628, Degé Tengyur vol. 68 (rgyud, ju), folios 1.a–97.a.
Dharmakīrtiśrī. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan zhes bya ba’i ’grel pa rtogs par dka’ ba’i snang ba zhes bya ba’i ’grel bshad (Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstravṛttidurbodhālokanāmaṭīkā). Toh 3794, Degé Tengyur vol. 86 (sher phyin, ja), folios 140.b–254.a.
Dharmamitra. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi tshig le’ur byas pa’i ’grel bshad tshig rab tu gsal ba (Abhisamayālaṃkārakārikāprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstraṭīkāprasphuṭapadā). Toh 3796, Degé Tengyur vol. 87 (sher phyin, nya), folios 1.a–110.a.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna. dbu ma’i man ngag rin po che’i za ma tog kha phye ba zhes bya ba (Ratnakaraṇḍodghāṭanāmamadhyamakopadeśa). Toh 3930, Degé Tengyur vol. 212 (dbu ma, ki), folios 96.b–116.b.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna. byang chub lam gyi sgron ma’i dka’ ’grel (Bodhimārgapradīpapañjikā). Toh 3948, Degé Tengyur vol. 213 (mdo ’grel, khi), folios 241.a–293.a.
Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna. mngon par rtogs pa rnam par ’byed pa (Abhisamayavibhaṅga). Toh 1490, Degé Tengyur vol. 22 (rgyud, zha), folios 186.a–202.b.
Ekādaśanirghoṣa. rdo rje ’chang chen po’i lam gyi rim pa’i man ngag bdud rtsi gsang ba (Mahāvajradharapathakramopadeśāmṛtaguhya). Toh 1823, Degé Tengyur vol. 35 (rgyud, ngi), folios 267.b–278.a.
Haribhadra. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa’i bshad pa mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi snang ba (Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāvyākhyānābhisamayālaṃkārāloka). Toh 3791, Degé Tengyur vol. 85 (sher phyin, cha), folios 1.a–341.a.
Kāmadhenu. ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba gzi brjid kyi rgyal po zhes bya ba cho ga zhib mo’i rgyal po chen po’i rgya cher ’grel pa (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājanāmamahākalparājaṭīkā). Toh 2625, Degé Tengyur vol. 666 (rgyud, cu), folios 231.a–341.a.
Mañjuśrīkīrti. ’jam dpal gyi mtshan yang dag par brjod pa’i rgya cher bshad pa (Mañjuśrīnāmasaṃgītiṭīkā). Toh 2534, Degé Tengyur vol. 63 (gyud, khu), folios 115.b–301.a.
Paltsek (dpal brtsegs). gsung rab rin po che’i gtam rgyud dang shA kya’i rabs rgyud. Toh 4357, Degé Tengyur vol. 306 (sna tshogs, co), folios 239.a–377.a.
Paltsek (dpal brtsegs). pho brang stod thang lhan dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag. Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur vol. 308 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Pramuditākaravarman. gsang ba ’dus pa rgyud kyi rgyal po’i bshad pa zla ba’i ’od zer (Guhyasamājatantrarājaṭīkācandraprabhā). Toh 1852, Degé Tengyur vol. 41 (rgyud, thi), folios 120.a–313.a.
Sahajalalita. kun nas sgor ’jug pa’i ’od zer gtsug tor dri ma med par snang ba de bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi snying po dang dam tshig la rnam par blta ba zhes bya ba’i gzungs kyi rnam par bshad pa (Samantamukhapraveśaraśmivimaloṣṇīṣaprabhāsasarvatathāgatahṛdayasamayavilokitanāmadhāraṇīvṛtti). Toh 2688, Degé Tengyur vol. 71 (rgyud, thu), folios 269.a–320.b.
Śāntideva. bslab pa kun las btus pa (Śikṣāsamuccaya). Toh 3940, Degé Tengyur vol. 111 (dbu ma, khi), folios 3.a–194.b.
Sthiramati. rgyan dam pa sna tshogs rim par phye ba bkod pa (Paramālaṃkāraviśvapaṭalavyūha). Toh 2661, Degé Tengyur vol. 68 (rgyud, ju), folios 317.a–339.a.
Vairocanarakṣita. bslab pa me tog snye ma (Śikṣākusumamañjarī). Toh 3943, Degé Tengyur vol. 213 (dbu ma, khi), folios 196.a–217.a.
Various authors. bye brag tu rtogs par byed pa [chen po] (Mahāvyutpatti*). Toh 4346, Degé Tengyur vol. 306 (sna tshogs, co), folios 1.a–131.a.
Various authors. sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa. Toh 4347, Degé Tengyur vol. 306 (sna tshogs, co), folios 131.b–160.a.
Vinayadatta. sgyu ’phrul chen mo’i dkyil ’khor gyi cho ga bla ma’i zhal snga’i man ngag (Gurūpadeśanāmamahāmāyāmaṇḍalopāyikā). Toh 1645, Degé Tengyur vol. 25 (rgyud, ya), folios 290.a–309.a.
Vitapāda. gsang ba ’dus pa’i dkyil ’khor gyi sgrub pa’i thabs rnam par bshad pa (Guhyasamājamaṇḍalopāyikāṭīkā). Toh 1873, Degé Tengyur vol. 43 (rgyud, ni), folios 178.b–219.a.
Wönch’ük (Wen tsheg). dgongs pa zab mo nges par ’grel pa’i mdo rgya cher ’grel pa (Gambhīrasaṁdhinirmocanasūtraṭīkā). Toh 4016, Degé Tengyur vol. 220 (mdo ’grel, ti), folios 1.b–291.a; vol. 221 (mdo ’grel, thi), folios 1.b–272.a; and vol. 222 (mdo ’grel, di), folios 1.b–175.a.
Yeshe Dé (ye shes sde). lang kar gshegs pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo’i ’grel pa de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying po’i rgyan (Laṅkāvatāranāmamahāyānasūtravṛttitathāgatahṛdayālaṃkāra), Toh 4019, Degé Tengyur vol. 224 (mdo ’grel, pi), folios 1.a–310.a.
Kalzang Dolma (skal bzang sgrol ma). lo tsA ba ’gos chos grub dang khong gi ’gyur rtsom mdo mdzangs blun gyi lo tsA’i thabs rtsal skor la dpyad pa. In krung go’i bod kyi shes rig, vol. 77, pp. 31–53. Beijing: krung go’i bod kyi shes rig dus deb khang, 2007.
Lotsawa Gö Chödrup (lo tsā ba ’gos chos grub). In gangs ljongs skad gnyis smra ba du ma’i ’gyur byang blo gsal dga’ skyed, pp. 17–18. Xining: kan lho bod rigs rang skyong khul rtsom sgyur cu’u, 1983.
Ngawang Lobsang Choden (nga dbang blo bzang chos ldan). ’phags pa gser ’od dam pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po’i ’don thabs cho ga (A Rite That is a Method for Reciting the Noble Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light), s.n. s.l. n.d.
Pema Karpo (pad ma dkar po). gser ’od dam pa nas gsungs pa’i bshags pa. In The Collected Works of Kun-mkhyen padma dkar po, vol. 9 (ta), pp. 519–24. Darjeeling: kargyu sungrab nyamso khang, 1973–74.
Bagchi, S., ed. Suvarṇaprabhāsasūtram. Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute, 1967. Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon.
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Di, Guan. “The Sanskrit Fragments Preserved in Arthur M. Sackler Museum of Peking University.” Annual Report of the Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013, vol. XVII (Tokyo: Soka University, 2014): 109–18.
Lewis, Todd T. “Contributions to the Study of Popular Buddhism: The Newar Buddhist Festival of Guṃlā Dharma.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 16, no. 2 (Winter 1993): 309–54.
Nanjio Bunyiu, Idzumi Hokei. The Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra: A Mahāyāna Text Called “The Golden Splendour.” Kyoto: The Eastern Buddhist Society, 1931.
Nobel, Johannes (1937). Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrit text des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Nach den Handschriften und mit Hilfe der tibetischen und chinesischen Übertragungen. Leipzig: Harrassowitz.
Nobel, Johannes (1944). Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrit text des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Die Tibetischen Überstzungen mit einem Wörterbuch. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Nobel, Johannes (1944, 1950). Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrit text des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Die Tibetishcen Überstzungen mit einem Wörterbuch. 2 vols. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Radich, Michael (2014). “On the Sources, Style and Authorship of Chapters of the Synoptic Suvarṇaprabhasa-sūtra T644 Ascribed to Paramārtha (Part 1).” Annual Report of the Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013, vol. XVII (Tokyo: Soka University, 2014): 207–44.
Radich, Michael (2016). “Tibetan Evidence for the Sources of Chapters of the Synoptic Suvarṇa-prabhāsottama-sūtra T 664 A Ascribed to Paramārtha.” Buddhist Studies Review 32.2 (2015): 245–70. Sheffield, UK: Equinox Publishing.
Tanaka, Kimiaki. An Illustrated History of the Mandala From Its Genesis to the Kālacakratantra. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2018.
Tyomkin, E. N. “Unique Sanskrit Fragments of ‘The Sūtra of Golden Light’ in the Manuscript Collection of the St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies.” In Manuscripta Orientalia vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1995): 29–38. St. Petersburg: Russian Academy of Sciences.
Yuama, Akira. “The Golden Light in Central Asia.” In Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2003 (Tokyo: Soka University, 2004): 3–32.
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