The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma
The Animals

“The monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action has correctly understood the ripening of the karmic phenomena in hell. He has understood the extent of the lifespans and the remainder of lives within the hundred and thirty-six regions of the hells. He has also concerned himself with the second realm of beings and thus examined, in short, the thirty-six classes of starving spirits. Now, as he examines the nature of the various levels of life, he will apply knowledge derived from hearing and thus perceive thirty-four different kinds of animal life.

“He will consider, ‘The five realms of beings have come about in dependence on mental misdeeds. In general, the animals all have distinct appearances, forms, movements, and means of sustenance. Some live in harmony while others do not, some are aggressive and some are not, some are friendly and some are not, some live together and some do not. [F.314.b] Those bearing wings include eagles,201 fowl, crows, swans, and so on. Those that may or may not live in harmony include foxes, dogs, and the like. Those that may or may not be aggressive include crows, owls, horses, buffalo, snakes, and mongooses. What are the karmic actions that result in all those different appearances, forms, movements, and feeding habits?’

“Here the monk will apply knowledge derived from hearing, and further consider, ‘These beings have different types of minds, different things on which they depend, and engage in different actions. They constitute many different types of beings and partake of distinct forms of food. Now, what are the causes for those animals that may or may not be in harmony?’

“As he examines their karmic actions, he will apply knowledge derived from hearing and so see how two proud human beings who are skilled in reciting treatises that promulgate wrong views may recite such unwholesome treatises to each other. What they let each other hear is meaningless, joyless, and offers no means to ascend to the higher realms. Nevertheless, they may cause each other to be zealous about the positions linked with such unwholesome treatises, unwholesome causes, and unwholesome views. When two such people die, they will both be born in hell. In the event that they are born as animals, the causes that can inspire both harmony and disharmony will make them become furious at each other, as in the case of snakes, mongooses, horses, buffalo, crows, owls, and so forth.

“The monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will continue to examine the animal world, wondering what karmic actions and causes may lead to birth as a member of a herd or flock of animals. He will apply knowledge derived from hearing and thus perceive how some female patrons, who are strongly attached to cyclic existence, think, ‘If I am later born as an animal, by this gift may you be my husband [F.315.a] and may I be your wife.’ When later such people separate from their bodies, they will fall into the lower realms and be born among animals that are fond of pleasure. Thus, due to their completed acts, they will be born as pheasants, pigeons, or ducks that enjoy copulating.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will think of foxes and other such disharmonious animals, wondering, ‘What actions will make one take birth as a fox or a dog?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how some people steal and constantly covet the delicious food of scholars and people who have taken vows. When people with such inordinate covetousness later separate from their bodies, they will fall into the lower realms and be born as foxes that look for fights and engage in fierce competition among one another.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will examine deer. Applying knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how some people blow conches or beat drums to drive out other people from towns, cities, or marketplaces and thus incite panic. When later such people separate from their bodies, they will be born in hell. Once they escape the hells, they will become deer that suffer from constant fear. Just as in the past they drove out people from towns, cities, and marketplaces and into the wilderness, they will now themselves live in the jungle or in the forest. If they should be born with the general lot in life of a human, they will, in accordance with their causal actions, suffer from constant fear, and their minds will be extremely feeble and witless. Thus, they will to some extent think like those in the animal world, as if they were animals trapped with snares.202 As for those that remain, due to the power of their karmic actions, they will live in mutual discord. [F.315.b]

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to examine the animal world, he will ask himself, ‘What karmic actions cause one to take spontaneous birth?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how some people out of desire boil worms in water to produce silk. When worms are boiled in this way, millions of tiny insects203 are born spontaneously. People then burn these small insects in a fire offering sacrifice. When later such people separate from their bodies, they will fall into the lower realms and be born in hell. Once freed from hell, they will repeatedly take spontaneous birth as animals, such as silkworms.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to examine the animal world, he will ask himself, ‘What karmic actions cause one to take birth from warmth and moisture?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how for the sake of wealth some evil people who have wrong views kill fish and turtles,204 and bury them in the ground. In a similar vein, other people do the same to otters. Later, as maggots are born from warmth and moisture there, these people will also kill those beings, either sacrificing them or killing them for the sake of profit. When later such people separate from their bodies, they will fall into the lower realms and be born in hell. Once they escape hell, they will be born from warmth and moisture as ants, lice, or the like. Thus, the monk will carefully discern the second mode of birth by means of the path that is true in all respects, comprehending it with exhaustive intelligence.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects [F.316.a] continues to examine the animal world, he will ask himself, ‘What karmic actions cause one to take birth from an egg?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how some people who have attained mundane concentration may pacify desire, anger, and delusion. If, however, some condition should make them angry, that mental flaw will make them lose their objective. When separating from their bodies, such people will then fall into the lower realms and be born in the hells. Once free from hell, they will be born from an egg in the animal realm, as a vulture, a crow, or the like. If, when free from such an existence, they are born with the general lot in life of a human, they will constantly be angry and afraid.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to examine the animal world, he will ask himself, ‘What karmic actions cause one to take birth from a womb?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how there are some desirous people who let a stallion have its way with a mare, or likewise a bull with a cow, or they set fire to a forest, or associate with a promiscuous, unsuitable person. When such people later separate from their bodies, they will be born in hell. Once free from hell, they will take birth as an animal from a womb. If, when free from such a state, they should be born with the general lot in life of a human, they will, in accordance with their causal actions, be born as the third kind of being.205

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects examines the eleven types of animals,206 he will proceed to concern himself with the four kinds of food: coarse food, the food of contact, the food of volition, and the food of joy. As he examines the ripening of the effects of these four kinds of food, [F.316.b] he will apply knowledge derived from hearing and so notice how some people of bad character offer food to robbers and thieves, telling them, ‘Eat this and then go kill my enemy.’ If, craving for food, the criminals then proceed to murder the other people, they will, upon separating from their bodies, fall into the lower realms and be born in hell. Once free from hell they will, by force of their actions, be born as animals that live from coarse food. Thus, they will be born as cows, buffalo, donkeys, pigs, dogs, foxes, camels, elephants, horses, sheep, deer, goats, jungle cows, crows, vultures, geese,207 herons, gazelle, antelopes, barking deer, spotted deer,208 domestic fowl, pheasants, or snakes. They may be born in myriad habitats, living in thorny places, wildernesses, and so forth.

“As the monk carefully examines the directions, he will then concern himself with sustenance through contact. Thus, he will think, ‘Some animals are born from an egg. This concerns birds, as well as those animals that live in the water,209 on the shore, and in the ocean, as well as nāgas, snakes, animals that live in burrows, or any other such animal. What karmic actions may cause them to eat the food of contact?’

“Inquiring in this way, the monk will apply knowledge derived from hearing and thus perceive how some people think, ‘I shall give to others,’ yet they only make gifts mentally, without saying anything. Once they have died, due to karmic actions to be experienced in other lives, they may take birth as animals. In that case their purely mental acts [F.317.a] will make them later consume the food of contact.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to examine the animal world, he will ask himself, ‘How do sentient beings subsist on the food of volition, the third kind of sustenance?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how those animals that are born from an egg, such as fish, sea monsters, crocodiles, alligators, oysters, conches, and so forth, live from the food of volition. Thus, if such a mother or father merely thinks of their offspring, they will be satiated by that alone, and they may grow and derive nourishment from that, just as if they were eating with their mouths.

“Wondering what karmic actions may cause one to be born in that way, the monk will apply knowledge derived from hearing and so notice how some feeble-minded people, who have no understanding of the consequences of actions, will promise another person that in two weeks, or a month, they will give them a little bit of money, food, or gemstones. The poor person who hears this may then become elated and think, ‘That benefactor is going to give a gift to this poor fellow!’ Yet when the poor person shows up two weeks or a month later filled with joy, the cruel person will go back on his promise.

“When later such people separate from their bodies, they will fall into the lower realms and be born in a hell of shifting happiness and pain. Once free from that, they will proceed to take birth among the animals and, by force of having falsely made someone happy, they will gain nourishment from acts of volition. If they should be born among humans, they will, in accordance with their causal actions, become servants of the people they lied to. [F.317.b]

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will concern himself with the fourth kind of sustenance, the so-called food of joy, as it is partaken of in the animal world. With knowledge derived from hearing he will notice how certain animals subsist on the afflictive food of joy. Thus, for example, the great ajagara snake that dwells in dark dungeons derives sustenance from the food of joy and wind. The same is the case with creatures such as lizards210 and the so-called mountain dweller. The gods in Luminosity also draw nourishment from the food of joy, yet their sustenance is free from ill will. The food of joy sought by animals, on the other hand, is connected with resentful beliefs and sustained by tightly held grudges.

“Wondering what karmic actions may cause one to be born in that way, the monk will apply knowledge derived from hearing and thus notice how some people, who are predominantly angry and have a naturally hostile disposition, become motivated by a grudge, which incites them to murder others while under the strong influence of delusion. When later such people separate from their bodies, they will fall into the lower realms and be born in hell. If such beings, who possess both the bases for resentment and pleasure, are born as animals, they will live on the food of joy and wind. If they are born with the general lot in life of a human, they will, in accordance with their causal actions, always get into random and baseless fights with others.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to concern himself with the infinite world of animals, he will ask himself how the animals that live in water take birth. With knowledge derived from hearing he will notice how some people of feeble mind and consciousness may die while tormented by thirst. When that happens, such people fall into the lower realms, where they take birth as water creatures. [F.318.a] Likewise, they may be born into a solitary life in one of the numerous worlds of fish. When people tormented by thirst see water during the intermediate existence, they may pursue it and think, ‘Let me be born there!’ The moment that wish occurs, they will be born in water. Existence manifests due to causes and conditions, and this is how one remains within the corridors of existence. As the karmic actions of those beings‍—who were not generous and who did not practice virtue‍—ripen, they will have a constant feeling that the water is hot. Their thirst will continue and the water will feel salty.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will concern himself with birds that scuttle about on dry land and those that fly in the sky. He will wonder, ‘What karmic actions allow birds to fly in empty space and be supported where there is no support?’ As he employs knowledge derived from hearing, he will then notice three forms of miraculous ability: intentional transformation, physical movement, and mental speed. Intentional transformation pertains to those who have miraculous powers. Such individuals are able to travel wherever they wish. If they wish for space to become earth, they will be able to see it as such and walk upon it. Physical movement occurs according to particular features of reality, as in the case of the birds. Mental speed is the provenance of thus-gone buddhas, who are able to arrive in whichever location they set their sights on. In this way, the monk will see that, due to the particular differences in the karmic actions associated with the three realms, there are three forms of miraculous ability. [V69][B21] [F.1.b]

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to examine the world of animals, he will notice that certain animals, such as birds or deer‍—whether they move in water, on dry land, or in the sky‍—may appear in the realms of hell beings, starving spirits, animals, gods, or humans. The monk will then ask himself, ‘Why do such animals experience pain in hell?’ Examining this matter with knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that the hells contain both animals that are counted as sentient beings and animals that are not counted as sentient beings. When beings are born in hell and burn in the fires, there are some birds with physiological distortions that make them perceive that place as enjoyable and therefore form the wish to be born there. Then, as soon as that thought crops up, [F.2.a] they will be born as birds in hell and experience all the sufferings of hell beings that were explained earlier.

“When beings take birth in the various regions of hell in accordance with their completed and accumulated acts, they will be frightened by animals that are not counted as sentient beings, such as all the horrifying throngs of lions, tigers, owls, insects, vipers, and constrictors. Those hell beings that are counted as sentient beings may also be hurt by those that are not counted as sentient beings. However, although they may be wounded by such animals that manifest due to their karmic actions, those animals that are not counted as sentient beings do not feel any pain themselves.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will examine the world of starving spirits. He will ask himself, ‘What action may cause an animal to be born in the world of starving spirits, tormented by hunger and thirst?’ Applying knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that animals take birth in all thirty-six classes of starving spirits. Thus, some birds that live in the human realm, such as crows, vultures, or the like,211 may kill and eat other birds there. When they later die, the ripening of killing will make them take birth as birds in the realms of starving spirits, [F.2.b] and so they will suffer the physical torments of hunger and thirst. Such birds live from plucking out and eating the eyes of starving spirits, but, as they feed in this way, their negative acts will make their marrow and brains feel extremely hot, as if they were made of acid or molten copper.

“As the monk thus examines the birds that live in the realm of starving spirits, he will utter the following verses of instruction:

“Thus, the monk will briefly consider the animal realm, noticing how the chains of karmic action connect many hundreds of thousands of lives, thus causing the river of immeasurable pain and suffering to flow. In this way, due to the interplay of numerous actions that lead to lives as animals, as well as a variety of causes and conditions involving various intentions, there arises an ocean measuring ten leagues. Within this ocean live various fish, sea monsters, whales, crocodiles, and shellfish that torment one another. Those beings have obscured and desirous minds and hence, without any understanding of right and wrong, [F.3.a] they take birth in the deep sea. With a feeling like being burned by acid, and constantly tormented by thirst, they live in fear of mutual killing.

“Those that live in the middle ocean212 experience anger. Anger may cause beings to take birth as nāgas that lurk in this middle sea. Such nāgas feel hostile toward each other, and, due to this aggression, they shoot poison at each other and are constantly intent on harming one another. Their realm is called Endowed with Enjoyments. Measuring one thousand leagues, it is full of nāga kings. Two kinds of nāga kings live there: those that are righteous and those that are not righteous. The righteous nāga kings bring happiness to the entire human world, whereas the latter cause harm there. Moreover, within the realms of the righteous nāga kings, there is no rain of nāga particles, which are particles that feel like burning sand falling on their heads. However, throughout the realms of the unrighteous nāga kings, such particles do pour down, and thus they burn all the female nāgas there. This happens repeatedly.

“The monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will contemplate the causes of the nāga particles and their related karmic actions, wondering what acts cause the nāga particles to fall. As he examines this with knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how some people who are overcome and driven by anger, or who are deluded, set fire to the temples of the saṅgha, or to villages, towns, or markets. When such people later separate from their bodies, they will be born in hell. [F.3.b] When they escape from there, they will be born among the nāgas, where, due to their earlier misdeeds of arson, they will be bombarded by the falling nāga particles.

“The monk will further examine the world of the nāgas, wondering what actions may cause one to be born where no nāga particles fall. Investigating with knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how some non-Buddhists with mundane afflictions give thorn-like gifts, and are born within ‘seven thorns’ in the way that was described earlier.213 While obscured by anger they may thus pray to be born among the nāgas. When such people later separate from their bodies, they will fall into the lower realms and be born among the nāgas. However, once born as nāgas, rather than having an aggressive nature, they will be righteous and practice the Dharma. Thus, nāga particles will not fall upon their heads.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to examine the world of the nāgas, he will wonder, ‘Karmic actions cause beings to take birth as nāgas in Endowed with Enjoyments, yet how many kinds of righteous nāgas are there, and how many unrighteous nāgas are there?’

“Investigating with knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how the righteous nāgas live in abodes encircled by jewel fences made of the seven precious substances. Their abodes are radiant and feature perfect ponds, cascades, and blue lotuses. The nāgas there live on elixir and are always happy. Their bodies are adorned with flowers, powders, and ointments. While they all have the head of a serpent, they can nevertheless transform themselves into any form they like. Wherever they wish to proceed or relocate to, they will appear there.

“The righteous nāga kings are the following: [F.4.a] Seven-Headed, Gajānana, the nāga king Vāsuki, the nāga king Takṣaka, the nāga king Bhadraka, the nāga king Janaka, the nāga king Undefeatable, the nāga king Meghamālin, the nāga king Kuṇḍalin, and the nāga king Shining. All these nāga kings are righteous and follow the Dharma. To ensure fine harvests, they bring timely, sufficient, and delightful rainfall, and they will not cause untimely hail, clouds, or winds. They have faith in the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, and follow them with faith. They also protect buddha relics. Since no nāga particles fall on them, their lives are very pleasant.

“These nāgas will make rain shower down on the four human abodes: Jambudvīpa, Godānīya in the west, Videha in the east, and Kuru in the north. Whenever mendicants, brahmins, and people in general are righteous and follow the Dharma, the strength of these nāga kings will, as a unique effect of the Dharma, increase. They will then send abundant rain and there will be fine crops with exquisite smell, taste, and color. These nāga kings will not create any harmful disturbances, poisons, or winds. Fine fruits will grow forth and no one will be harmed by the light of the sun or the moon. The righteous nāga kings will not create any nāga trouble, and they will not rouse storms.

“Four factors create obstacles to the lives of beings in Jambudvīpa: failed harvests, armed conflicts, being struck by poison and wind, and water problems. When people are righteous and follow the Dharma, [F.4.b] the righteous nāgas will gain strength. They will then abstain from creating any dark clouds‍—they will not gather any such clouds, and they will not release any troublesome storms. They will not disrupt the rivers but instead they will water the crops and nourish them well. Flowers and fruits will have fine fragrances and tastes. Thus, sentient beings will be happy, free of disease, and strong. These nāgas create positive karmic actions and, as a beneficent effect for sentient beings, they also ensure that the crops are excellent. Thus, these nāgas regard the people of Jambudvīpa with great affection on many levels.

“When the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects has examined Jambudvīpa in this way, he will next consider Godānīya in the west. Thus, he will wonder, ‘In what ways do the righteous nāgas that follow the Dharma protect that realm?’

“The people of Godānīya in the west have extremely gentle minds. One obstacle that they do experience, however, is unclean water, which may shorten their lives. The righteous nāga kings who follow the Dharma will not create any clouds and thereby let unclean water fall into ravines, gorges, or the mighty mountains. Instead, such nāgas will use their power to purify the water, and so the people of the western realm of Godānīya live happily.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will consider Videha in the east, and so ask himself, ‘Well, how are the righteous nāgas that follow the Dharma able to bring happiness to Videha in the east?’

“As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that the people on the eastern continent of Videha encounter obstacles in the form of frightening flashes of lightning and thunderclaps. [F.5.a] Seeing lightning and hearing thunder will make their extremely gentle minds unsound. Thus, whenever the lords of the righteous nāgas that follow the Dharma abstain from causing any thunder or lightning, this protects the humans in Videha from illness.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will think of the harms suffered by the humans in Kuru in the north. Thus, he will ask himself, ‘What harms do the human beings in Kuru encounter?’ As he examines this matter with knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that the people of Kuru in the north are vexed by cold winds. Black clouds and cold winds cause the flowers there to wither and lose their pleasant scent, which makes the inhabitants of that realm despondent. Due to the presence of those black clouds, birds will no longer sing beautifully, and the sounds of lutes and clay drums will no longer be pleasing. In such ways, the activities of the nāgas may cause harm to those who live on mountains such as Mount Illuminator. Yet when righteous nāga kings who follow the Dharma appear there, there will not be any cold winds or black clouds. In these ways the righteous nāga kings that follow the Dharma will bring happiness and benefit to the inhabitants of all four human abodes.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects continues to examine the world of the nāgas, he will ask himself, ‘What actions cause nāgas to become unrighteous and abandon the Dharma?’

“When he examines this matter with knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice that the nāga realm known as Endowed with Enjoyments contains the following unrighteous nāga kings: the nāga king Pramatha, the nāga king Aṭopa, the nāga king Kāla, [F.5.b] and the nāga king Huluhulu. All of these reside in the realm known as Endowed with Enjoyments within the middle ocean.

“Wondering what powers the unrighteous nāga kings possess, the monk will apply knowledge derived from hearing and so notice how those nāgas hold sway whenever people do not respect mendicants or brahmins. In Jambudvīpa those nāgas will then create hostility and emit poison from their bodies. They will move within black clouds and cause poisonous trees to grow. They will stir harmful winds that spoil the water, which in turn spoil the crops, so that those who consume them are stricken by severe disease. As the crops are ruined, the lifespan of people will shorten, and wicked and aggressive kings will kill each other. Due to such drawbacks, the number of humans in Jambudvīpa will greatly diminish. These are the ways that evil nāgas create obstacles.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects concerns himself with the nāga kings, he will next ask himself how the unrighteous nāga kings may cause obstacles for humans living in Godānīya in the west. Applying knowledge derived from hearing, he will then see that that realm is ruled by unrighteous human kings. Unrighteous nāga kings that do not follow the Dharma will cause a toxic rain to fall in all the ravines, gorges, and mighty mountain peaks. This rainwater will pollute the water table in general, and so, when consumed by the people of Godānīya in the west, it will cause them obstacles. Thus, the monk will correctly examine Godānīya in the west, and become aware of this.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the ripening of karmic effects will examine Videha in the east. [F.6.a] Applying knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that when unrighteous people who do not follow the Dharma appear, it will make the hostile nāgas become powerful. They will then produce very loud thunderclaps in Videha in the east. The noise will be as loud as if a mountain were being crushed. When the people in Videha hear this, their hearts will be disturbed, and some will even become sick. The nāgas will also produce flashes of lightning that shoot tongues of flames in the ten directions, while the nāgas dwelling in the clouds take on frightening forms. Their eyes will be as large as chariots, their bodies will be like black mountains, and fire will burn from their three heads. They can also assume the forms of dogs, snakes, and many other horrible forms. Seeing all this will create obstacles for the people of Videha in the east.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action will examine Kuru in the north, which, although different from the heavens, is like a second heaven. Thus, he will wonder, ‘How do the hostile nāga lords cause harm to the people of Kuru in the north?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will notice how, as mentioned before, the people of Kuru in the north enjoy lotuses, blooming flowers, fragrant flowers, and many other exquisite pleasures. Seeing such things satisfies and delights the people of Kuru. However, whenever people who do not respect mendicants or brahmins show up, the hostile nāgas will create thick clouds on the northern continent of Kuru, and those clouds will obscure the sun. As the clouds cover the sun, the lotuses will wither, their smell will become unpleasant, and the flowers will disappear from sight, just like the sun. [F.6.b] When the flowers fade, the minds of the people of Kuru in the north will become gloomy, and the clouds and winds will make the sound of their lutes and clay drums seem unpleasant. Thus, the monk will see how the nāgas can create obstacles in all four realms of human beings.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action will consider the four continents in terms of their positive and negative attributes. Thus, with knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that while there is tremendous happiness in Kuru in the north, this not so in the other three human realms. In Jambudvīpa the people may be either righteous or unrighteous, and accordingly there will be both prosperity and decline, happiness and suffering. Among these three continents, this one manifests according to people’s karmic actions. Here people may pay heartfelt respect to the ten virtuous actions. Here buddhas appear. Here one depends on the four human abodes. Here people can consider and examine the ten virtuous actions. Here pure conduct is practiced. Here people are mindful of death and birth. Here the Vajra Seat is made of vajra. Even if all of cyclic existence within a distance of eighty-four thousand leagues from Jambudvīpa were destroyed and disappeared, the Vajra Seat would endure and could not be demolished. Since the very cause for them to set their minds on awakening is found here, the blessed buddhas take birth in Jambudvīpa. The number of roots of virtue that cause the attainment of awakening cannot be fathomed, even with the example of Mount Sumeru, so how could anything else within the directions serve as an example? The causes for the emergence of buddhas are here. Although the causes for the birth of buddhas are as rare as a sea turtle poking its head through a yoke floating on the ocean, they are here and not on any other continent. This is where such causes and conditions lie. Among all four human abodes, [F.7.a] Jambudvīpa is the foremost‍—not any of the others.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action continues to examine the world of the nāgas, he will ask himself, ‘What karmic actions will make the unrighteous nāga kings who do not act according to the Dharma eat frogs, sand, or air?’ With knowledge derived from hearing he will then see how, in previous human lives, such nāgas would enslave and rule over214 their children and wives. Thus, with watering mouths, the women would watch while their masters had their main meal alone, while they themselves would only be given inferior food. Having separated from their bodies those men are then born in the nāga realm, where they subsist on frogs, sand, or air, because karmic effects ripen in ways that accord with their relevant actions.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action continues to examine the world of the nāgas, he will ask himself, ‘What karmic actions cause the nāgas to bring rain and hail?’ As he applies knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that when unrighteous nāgas become incensed and angry at each other, they produce harmful rain clouds and rouse fierce rain- and hailstorms that destroy the barley, rice, and other grains in the fields.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action continues to examine the world of the nāgas, he will ask himself, ‘How do the nāgas create wealth in the human realm by sending delightful rains that nourish sugarcane, barley, wheat, and other grains?’ With knowledge derived from hearing, he will then see that as a determinate effect brought about by sentient beings, [F.7.b] the righteous nāga kings that follow the Dharma send rains that enrich harvests for the benefit and happiness of all the people.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action continues to examine the world of the nāgas, he will ask himself, ‘How many nāgas live in the ocean and the waters of the sea?’ As he examines this matter with knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that when most people in Jambudvīpa are unrighteous, countless nāgas will be born at the ocean shores. When most people are righteous, five hundred and seventy million nāgas will appear.

“As the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action continues to examine the world of the nāgas, he will examine the nāga city known as Endowed with Enjoyments, which is situated underneath the ocean. As he examines the bottom of the sea, he wonders who might live there.

“As he investigates this with knowledge derived from hearing, the monk will see that this is the abode of the so-called asuras, who compete with the gods. These asuras are, briefly, of two kinds, because some belong to the class of starving spirits while others belong to the animal realm. Those that belong to starving spirits are, moreover, either starving spirits of the māra class or starving spirits with great magical powers.

“Those that belong to the animal realm live at the bottom of the sea, upon which rests the subterranean base of Mount Sumeru, which in total measures eighty-four thousand leagues. This mountain has four plateaus, of which the first measures twenty-one thousand leagues.

“On that first plateau resides Rāhu, king of the asuras, whose magical power to create forms exceeds that of anyone else within the desire realm. Because of the virtues and vices of human beings, Rāhu [F.8.a] will think to himself, ‘The gods are rivals of us, the asuras. Let us go and have a look at those groves, forests, and divine maidens that the gods are so fond of and so attached to!’

“With that thought in mind, Rāhu will adorn his body with precious gems such as sapphire and ruby, or with dazzling and pure royal gold, or with natural royal fabrics of blue, red, yellow, or black. Whichever precious stone Rāhu may choose as his adornment, it will make his entire body, which is as large as Mount Sumeru, shine with that same hue. Thus, if he wears a great sapphire, his body will emit an awesome bluish light. Likewise, he may also shine with a red or a yellow radiance, and if he adorns himself with coral, he will shine with the light of that gem. Whichever gem he may choose will lend him its radiance. In this fashion, he is able to compete with the gods and attract the attention of maidens among both the asuras and the gods.

“Wanting to meet the goddesses, Rāhu will put on his travel attire and then set forth from his abode. He will make his way into his city, which is known as Radiant. Spanning a hundred thousand leagues, this city is adorned with delightful groves, forests, trees, mansions, ponds, fountains, pools, and spouts that are all made of jewels. The lord of the asuras, who is adorned with flower garlands, powders, and ointments, will then leave this city to inspect the groves and forests of the gods.

“If at that time the humans in Jambudvīpa pursue non-Dharma‍—if they do not respect their fathers, [F.8.b] mothers, mendicants, or brahmins; if they do not maintain the traditions of their paternal ancestors; or if they do not rely on the Dharma, worship the Three Jewels, or take care regarding virtuous and unvirtuous actions‍—then the gods of the Four Great Kings, who inhabit the lowest of the divine abodes, will feel their power diminish. Alarmed, they will shout to each other, ‘O gods, the son of the lioness, Rāhu, has come to subdue and kill us!’

“However, if at that time the humans in Jambudvīpa are righteous‍—if they respect their fathers, their mothers, mendicants, and brahmins; if they maintain the traditions of their paternal ancestors; and if they rely on the Dharma, worship the Three Jewels, and take care regarding virtuous and unvirtuous actions‍—then the gods of the Four Great Kings will proceed to dress up in their various jewels, adorn their bodies with numerous ornaments and garments, drape themselves with flower garlands, and apply colored powders and fragrant ointments. They will then let a rain of weapons fall, and, with a roar of laughter, hasten to the groves and forests on Mount Sumeru where the son of the lioness, Rāhu, is now present.

“While Rāhu is still in the groves and forests on the slopes of Mount Sumeru, he will feel millions of light rays strike his face and impair his vision. Unable to see and with his eyes aching, he will think, ‘It is the sun’s fault that I cannot see the divine maidens or the groves, forests, ponds, or riches of the gods!’ Angry and red-eyed, he will think, ‘Because of the sun I cannot see the goddesses!’ and so he will block out the sunlight with his hand. [F.9.a] While blocking the sun with his hand, Rāhu will think, ‘I want to see the goddesses and the heavens!’ and so he will eagerly and earnestly try to see those beautiful sights.

“As he stands there, the ocean will reach to his waist, but his jewel ornaments will still saturate everything above his waist with their colors. Thus, as he stands there blocking the harmful sunlight, the light from his jewels will make his hand blue, red, yellow, or black. When brahmin pundits, who are deceived by incorrect learning, see this, they will say, ‘The sun has been taken by an evil planet! The sun has been taken by a red planet! The sun has been eclipsed by a yellow planet! The sun has been eclipsed by a black planet!’ Harboring disregard for the consequences of actions and seeking to make a living, such people will proceed to make prognostications that this eclipse means harvests will be either good or bad, that the king will have either success or failure, or that this is either an auspicious or an inauspicious sign. In fact, this is just Rāhu blocking the sun with his hand as he seeks to better see the divine forests, groves, pools, and jeweled beauties.

“When Śakra, lord of the gods, sees this, he will summon the gods and order them, ‘Send forth my chariot and drive back this Rāhu!’ Heeding Śakra’s command, the gods will adorn their bodies with numerous jewels and race forth to meet the son of the lioness, Rāhu, in battle. As Rāhu then beholds the advancing gods, he will retreat to his own realm.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic action will consider lunar eclipses, and so he will wonder, ‘How can Rāhu engulf the moon?’ Examining this matter with knowledge derived from hearing, he notices how Rāhu’s servants, who always glide over the surface of the sea, see the moon as it rises [F.9.b] over the summits of the eastern mountains and approaches Jambudvīpa with its full orb of radiant beryl beauty. The servants report this to Rāhu, saying, ‘Your Majesty, the full moon, which looks just as if it were the face of a divine maiden, is approaching.’

“When Rāhu, who is full of desire for divine maidens, hears this, he will want to see the moon and so he will leave his abode. Wanting to touch the face of a divine maiden, he will hold up his hand from a long distance, thereby covering the moon disk. As before, his body will be adorned with numerous jewels, and when the sophists in Jambudvīpa see this, they will proclaim to the people of their lands, ‘There is a black planet!’ ‘There is a red planet!’ ‘There is a yellow planet!’ ‘Harvests will be good!’ ‘Harvests will be bad!’ ‘Things will go well for our king!’ ‘Things will go badly for our king!’ ‘There will be war!’ ‘There will be peace!’

“Eclipses also occur in Godānīya in the west, Videha in the east, and Kuru in the north, but there are no sophists on those continents, nor are there any false teachers.

“Thus, such is the underlying cause when the sun and moon appear eclipsed by a planet.

“The sophists will also make pronouncements because of noises heard from the sky. Thus, when Rāhu resides below the ground, the asuras may approach him and say, ‘The king of the gods, Kauśika, resides on the summit of Mount Sumeru. His city is delightful and Sudharma, the assembly hall of the gods, is rich in sense pleasures, to the delight the gods. That is how Kauśika, king of the gods, lives. But you are our king. You are greater and more powerful than him, and your miraculous feats are greater than his. Therefore, let us march on him. Let us wage war on the gods and their king! Let us crush their city!’

“When he is invoked in this way, Rāhu, king of the asuras, will become furious, [F.10.a] roar aloud, and immediately sally forth from the city of Radiant. When this happens, the sophists will proclaim, ‘Harvests will be good!’ ‘Harvests will be bad!’ ‘Things will go well for our king!’ ‘Things will go badly for our king!’ ‘There will be war!’ ‘There will be peace!’ They will proceed to proffer burned offerings and perform rituals for peace and happiness.

“Rāhu, king of the asuras, will then think, ‘When the jewels in the city of Radiant shine, the jewels in my radiant castle will also do so. When the light of the jewels of that city dims, the same will happen in my castle. Now, since the radiance of the gods is due to the full moon and the sun, I shall cover both of them so that the gods are left in darkness.’

“If Rāhu gets this idea during the day, he will, just as before, block the disk of the sun with his one hand, while holding on to the summit of Mount Sumeru with the other. When the gods see Rāhu’s hand, they will advance on him to wage war. Now, since Rāhu is a kind of animal, he has little courage. Thus, as he beholds the magnificent bodies of the gods, adorned with their various jewels, he will be frightened and again retreat to the subterranean city of Radiant. This is the second cause of solar and lunar eclipse and of thunderous sounds in the sky.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic actions will examine the pleasures of Rāhu, king of the asuras. Investigating with knowledge derived from hearing, he will see that Rāhu’s city measures eight thousand leagues, rests upon Mount Sumeru, and is adorned with various jewels. It features streams, ponds, and parks, and the ground is paved with refined gold. The houses are made of gold and beautified by coral trees. [F.10.b] Bells and bangles ring from the trees, and delightful songs can be heard, accompanied by large and small cymbals. In the pools grow lovely golden lotuses, and beautiful golden swans, buffalo, and ducks live there. The beautiful peacocks resemble those of the land of the gods. These birds have jewel beaks and are always delightful and beautiful to behold. They move in ravishing ways and their bodies are made of the seven precious substances. Some are colored in hues of blue beryl and azure. Frolicking, they beautify the tops of the palaces. Their eyes do not close and the sounds they emit are like the rumble of thunder in rain clouds. The birds behave as though they are performing dramatic spectacles and regal duties.215 They are delightful to behold and they can always be seen clearly, whether one is near or far away.216

“Another bird in that realm is the agnicūḍa bird, which has two heads and casts sidelong glances. It is accompanied by two female partners. These birds are intoxicated by flower nectar and, like the flowers of the bakula tree, they are clustered together.217 The songs of these birds echo. They have golden or beryl horns, and they frolic in the water. Some mate only once a year, while others are passionate and amorous all the time. They all have shiny eyes. The karada bird is of the color of fire and its voice is like thunder. Another bird218 that lives there is soft and of the color of lightning. With its beautiful feathers it flies through the forests, gorges, and valleys. It is always passionate. Several other birds live inside the mansions.219 Their colors are gorgeous like rainbows and exquisite flower bouquets. Their necks are lovely, red, [F.11.a] and resemble lotuses. Their feathers are soft, undulating, and sport myriad colors and shapes. Their long beaks are all made of jewels or gold. The bodies of the cuckoos and ravens are firm, and they hold their necks of spotless, beautiful feathers high. These birds soar in the sky, drink from the waters, and gather on the ground. They dance, sing, mate, and chirp. The different types of birds that live in the bakula trees sing in parks and groves throughout the city.

“The ponds of the city are covered with clusters of various lotuses and surrounded by beautiful groves. The city is also surrounded by four forests filled with golden trees. Each forest measures eight leagues. Known as Pinnacle, Park of Passion, Home of Geese, and Park of the Cuckoo Birds, these four forests cover the city limits. Three thousand types of trees flourish in these forests.220 Most of the trees have thick crowns and tall, slender branches full of birds. The trees are constantly in bloom and their scent extends an entire league. Bees swarm around them and they drip with honey. They are golden-hued and also drip with nectar. The forests include the following trees: gośīrṣacandana, black-cloud-color, milkwood-pine, keṭaka,221 fragrant-breeze, black agarwood, pine, jewel pine, agnivarṇa, blue aśoka tree, [F.11.b] red aśoka tree, bakula, arjuna, mango-pine, sinduvarati, tilaka, and burflower-tree. On the outskirts of the forests lie lotus ponds and many other trees that bloom with flowers such as maduka, nalikera, and panasa.222 There are plantain trees and trees that contain juice.223 The trees cover the ground, hide the sky like clouds, and are delightful to behold. They have thick crowns filled with birds and bees. They smell of incense and are full of sweet-scented flowers in all colors. Ripe with flowers, some bloom throughout the year while others bloom according to the seasons. Women delight in their sight, and their flowers are given to women as colorful ornaments.224 These beautiful trees are radiant, and some of them grow on embankments, while others are delightful to behold on mountainsides where they are visible from afar. Some of the trees are also found in Jambudvīpa, others in Kuru in the north, while some grow exclusively in the cities of the asuras. Some of the trees that adorn the city of the asuras, which is known as Radiant, only have flowers, while others bear flowers or fruits, or yield nectar.

“Rāhu, king of the asuras, is himself surrounded by a circle of asurīs who dance, giggle, and try to look their best. Frolicking most delightfully, they indulge in afflictive pleasures that soon prove to be impermanent, unreliable, and unpleasant. The asura king has four queens who are called Delightful Beauty, Lovely Scent, Grove of Beauty, and Maṅgalā. One billion two hundred million asura ladies-in-waiting serve the queens. Surrounded by this retinue, [F.12.a] Rāhu remains attached to the pleasures of the senses. It would be no easy task to even name the astonishing pleasures and enjoyments of his realm. He is served by many millions of asuras. His mansion is adorned with one thousand pillars, and the rooms, which are made of silver, are covered with circular designs.225 There Rāhu sports, delights, and enjoys himself, experiencing the effects of his own actions.

“Next, the monk who has knowledge of the effects of the ripening of karmic actions will inquire into Rāhu’s karmic actions and destiny. Thus, he will wonder, ‘What actions did he perform that he now experiences the results of such ripening?’

“At this point there are some verses: