The Bhaiṣajyavastu, “The Chapter on Medicines,” is a part of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, the corpus of monastic law of one of the most influential Buddhist schools in India. This chapter deals with monastic regulations about medicines. At the same time, it also includes various elements not restricted to such rules: stories of the Buddha and his disciples, a lengthy story of the Buddha’s journey for the purpose of quelling an epidemic and converting a nāga, a number of stories of the Buddha’s former lives narrated by the Buddha himself, and a series of verses recited by the Buddha and his disciples about their former lives. Thus, this chapter preserves not only interesting information about medical knowledge shared by ancient Indian Buddhist monastics but also an abundance of Buddhist narrative literature.
This text was translated by the Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team. Fumi Yao translated the Tibetan text into English and prepared the ancillary materials. Shayne Clarke proofread the translation and ancillary materials.
The translation has been completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
We gratefully acknowledge the generous sponsorship of Leo Tong Chen and his family; Zhang Wei, Li Mo, Zhang Mo Tong and Zhang Mo Lin; (Chi Xian Ren) Mao Gui Rong and Chi Mei; and Joseph Tse 謝偉傑, Patricia Tse 鄒碧玲 and family, in dedication to all eczema sufferers. Their support has helped make the work on this translation possible.
The Bhaiṣajyavastu, “The Chapter on Medicines,” is the sixth chapter of the Vinayavastu, “The Chapters on Monastic Discipline,” of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. The Mūlasarvāstivāda was one of the most influential Buddhist schools in India, and its Vinaya, the corpus of monastic law, is reported to have circulated not only in various parts of the Indian subcontinent but also in Southeast Asia, at least in the late seventh century. When this Vinaya was composed is an unresolved question, and we are presently unable to say more than that the corpus seems to have taken its present shape in the first few centuries of the common era.1
The Vinayavastu is one of the four divisions of this voluminous Vinaya and is a collection of seventeen thematic chapters, each of which deals with monastic rules about a specific topic such as ordination, clothing, and so on. Among these chapters, the Bhaiṣajyavastu is the lengthiest (in the Tibetan translation) or the second lengthiest (in the Sanskrit manuscript). As is indicated by its title, this chapter is concerned with rules about medicines to be used and foods to be eaten by monastics. Actually, however, most of the text is not related to any such rules, at least not directly; accounts of rules are concentrated mostly in the first and last parts of the chapter, which together make up less than 20 percent of the entire chapter, and the rest of the text is filled with various narrative stories about the Buddha and other characters, and stories of their former lives. Many parallels to sūtras, which present doctrines rather than monastic law, are also included in this chapter. Thus, it not only provides interesting information about medical knowledge shared by ancient Indian Buddhist monastics but is also a vast treasure trove of Buddhist narrative literature, and it even opens a number of doors to another canonical corpus, the Sūtrapiṭaka of the Mūlasarvāstivādins, most of which is lost today. The abundance of narrative elements and sūtras is characteristic of the law code of the Mūlasarvāstivādins as a whole, and the Bhaiṣajyavastu is outstanding in this regard.
The outline of the Bhaiṣajyavastu based on the Tibetan version is as follows. The chapter opens with an account of the Buddha’s permission for monks to use medicines, and explanations of various medicines follow. After the account of permission to boil almsfood that is not completely cooked, however, the text suddenly begins to narrate the biography of Pūrṇa, a disciple of the Buddha. After this story ends, another unrelated story begins, explaining how the city of Rājagṛha was endangered by a nāga king named Apalāla. In this story, at the request of the citizens of Vaiśālī and King Ajātaśatru of Magadha, the Buddha leaves Rājagṛha and journeys with his disciples to quell an epidemic in Vaiśālī and convert the nāga king, who lives in the northern region. The first part of this journey generally corresponds to the Buddha’s final journey as narrated in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra in the Dīrghāgama. However, in this text the story develops differently from the sūtra after the Buddha quells the epidemic in Vaiśālī, the first destination. Although he hints at his approaching nirvāṇa, the Buddha travels to Kuśinagarī without entering the city of Pāpā, which is an important place in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra. In the end, the Buddha does not enter nirvāṇa in the story in the Bhaiṣajyavastu. Various episodes are narrated regarding each place the Buddha visits, and sometimes they appear quite jumbled—the Buddha even “arrives” at Rājagṛha, the starting point of the journey, before he reaches the northern region, that is, his second destination. The Buddha flies through the air from a place named Rohitaka to the northern region, converts the nāga king Apalāla, returns, and continues traveling. In Śrāvastī, answering a question of King Prasenajit of Kosala, the Buddha narrates many stories of his former lives. Then the Buddha and his five hundred disciples visit Lake Anavatapta by means of their magical power, and there each of the disciples recites verses about his former lives, as does the Buddha, after which they return to Śrāvastī. The story of their journey continues until Vaiśālī. After an episode in Vaiśālī, accounts of various rules follow, which seem not to be related to the preceding story but to be simply a list of episodes relevant to rules. The chapter closes with an account of a monk who is bitten by a poisonous snake and then saved by the Buddha with a charm, accompanied by two stories about the former lives of the Buddha and the monk.
Today, the Bhaiṣajyavastu is extant in three languages: Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese. There had been available only a single Sanskrit manuscript of the Vinayavastu that included the Bhaiṣajyavastu, the so-called Gilgit manuscript, since its discovery in the 1930s and publication by Nalinaksha Dutt.2 At the end of the twentieth century, however, another Sanskrit manuscript of the Bhaiṣajyavastu was identified by Klaus Wille, and the present translator is now preparing to publish a transliteration.3 Unfortunately, about half of the Bhaiṣajyavastu is lost in the Gilgit manuscript, and the newly identified manuscript is only fragmentary. Although there are some other manuscript fragments from Central Asia identified with the Vinayavastu, there are no fragments identified with the Bhaiṣajyavastu other than some corresponding to the verses of the brahmin Nīlabhūti, which appear in the middle of the chapter.4 In some parts where both manuscripts are unavailable, the Divyāvadāna, a Sanskrit anthology of narrative stories, helps, for many of its chapters are extracts from the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya.5
The Chinese translation was made by Yijing 義淨 (635–713) around 700
Only the Tibetan translation preserves the complete text of the Bhaiṣajyavastu. According to the colophon to the Vinayavastu, the text was translated by Sarvajñādeva, Vidyākaraprabha, Dharmākara, and Palgyi Lhünpo and proofread by Vidyākaraprabha and Paltsek. The translation seems to have taken place in the ninth century, and it is the only Tibetan version of the text.
There are also several secondary translations such as the Mongolian version.
Various differences at various levels, from words to narrative structures, are found between the extant Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan versions. Many of these differences seem to have already existed in the Sanskrit manuscripts on which the Chinese and Tibetan translations were based.
In some Kangyurs, there is a colophon at the end of volume kha (Degé, Lithang, Choné) that mentions a revision of the translation at the time of the fourth Shamarpa (1453–1524), whereas other Kangyurs (Yongle, Peking, Narthang, Urga, Lhasa) do not have this colophon.7 In some other Kangyurs (Tokyo, London, Stok Palace, Shey Palace, Phukdrak), the corresponding part of the text is not located at the end of the volume, and no such colophon exists, either.
Most of the extant folios of the Gilgit manuscript corresponding to the Bhaiṣajyavastu were edited and published by Dutt in 1947, and since then several passages in the text have been edited or re-edited by other scholars such as Heinz Bechert, Raniero Gnoli, Klaus Wille, Jin-il Chung, and Hisashi Matsumura. Black-and-white photographs of the manuscript were published by Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra in 1974 and reprinted in 1995, and color photographs in high resolution were published by Shayne Clarke in 2014 together with detailed bibliographical surveys and concordances of the extant versions.
Since Alexander Csoma Kőrösi introduced the Tibetan Buddhist canon to the Western world in 1836,8 many of the stories in the Bhaiṣajyavastu have been translated into various modern languages from the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan versions. Ryūzan Nishimoto translated the entire Chinese version of the Bhaiṣajyavastu into classical Japanese in kakikudashi style in 1933. In this publication, he supplemented the Chinese version by translating the missing portions of the Bhaiṣajyavastu from the Tibetan version. The first complete translation of the Bhaiṣajyavastu into a modern language was a Japanese translation of the Tibetan version made by the present translator, which was published in 2013.
The present translation is based on the text as it appears in the Degé Kangyur, and its readings have been corrected on the basis of the Stok Palace manuscript and, in a few cases, several other Kangyurs, too. Our reason for using the Degé and Stok Palace Kangyurs is that it is mainly these two editions that have been used in recent studies of the Vinaya. The translation has also been modified on the basis of the Sanskrit and Chinese versions, as is mentioned in a note in each case. References to the Gilgit manuscript in notes are based on the manuscript itself unless reliable partial transliterations are otherwise available, while the page numbers in Dutt’s edition have been provided for convenience.
The sections and subsections of the present translation follow the uddāna system in the text itself. The Bhaiṣajyavastu includes eleven uddānas, or summaries of contents, each of which is placed at the beginning of a section, and the first items of the uddānas are collected into a piṇḍoddāna, or general summary of contents, which is given at the beginning of the entire text. There are some discrepancies between the uddānas and the main text, and these may represent vestiges of textual development.9 In some cases where it seemed necessary, the present translator has divided stories that are not mentioned in the uddānas into subdivisions and titled them according to their main topics.
As is usual in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, there are a large number of repetitions in the Bhaiṣajyavastu. The text abbreviates many of these repetitions, using certain phrases such as zhes bya ba nas and zhes bya ba’i bar gong ma bzhin no. The present translation simply uses ellipses (…) for these phrases to indicate an abbreviation.
Notes to the present translation are different from the notes to the translator’s Japanese translation. Many of the notes to the Japanese translation had to be omitted or abridged in view of 84000’s guidelines because they were too detailed and lengthy. On the other hand, the notes to the present translation include many new pieces of information that are not found in the notes to the Japanese version. Thus, for scholarly purposes, readers are advised to consult the notes to both versions if possible.
The entire chapter is thus summarized.
Summary of Contents:
The Buddha, the Blessed One, was staying in the Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park. On that occasion some monks[F.278.a] caught an autumn disease. Because they had caught an autumn disease, they turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.
The buddhas, the blessed ones, ask though they already know. The Buddha, the Blessed One, asked the venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, why have these monks turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened?”
The venerable Ānanda replied, “Honored One, these monks caught an autumn disease. Because they caught an autumn disease, they have turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened.”
“Ānanda,” said the Blessed One, “on account of that, I authorize10 monks to consume medicines.”
When the Blessed One said “monks may consume medicines,” the monks consumed medicines at the appropriate time (morning)11 but did not consume them after the appropriate time, because they were monks who were in the habit of eating at the appropriate time. Therefore, the monks turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.
The buddhas, the blessed ones, ask though they already know. The Buddha, the Blessed One, asked the venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, I said ‘monks may consume medicines.’ Why, then, have these monks turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened?”
The venerable Ānanda replied, “The Blessed One said ‘monks may consume medicines,’ but they consumed medicines at the appropriate time and did not consume them after the appropriate time, because they are monks who are in the habit of eating at the appropriate time. Therefore, they turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.”[F.278.b]
“Ānanda, on account of that, I authorize monks to consume four kinds of medicines: medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life.12
“Among them, the medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time are manthā,13 boiled rice,14 kulmāṣa, meat, and apūpa.
“The medicines to be consumed at night are the eight kinds of drinks: coconut drink, banana drink, kola drink, aśvattha drink, udumbara drink, parūṣaka15 drink, grape drink, and kharjūra16 drink.”
A Section Index:
“Medicines to be consumed within seven days are butter oil, oil, phāṇita, honey, and śarkarā.
“Medicines to be consumed throughout life are medicines derived from roots, medicines derived from stalks, medicines derived from leaves, medicines derived from flowers, medicines derived from fruits, the five kinds of resin, the five kinds of ashes, the five kinds of salt, and the five kinds of astringents.
“Among these medicines, the medicines derived from roots are musta, vaca, turmeric, ginger, ativiṣā, and what belong to the medicines derived from roots but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from stalks are sandal, cavikā, padmaka, devadāru, guḍūcī, dāruharidrā, and what belong to the medicines derived from stalks but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from leaves are from paṭola leaves, vāśaka leaves, nimba leaves, kośātakī leaves, saptaparṇa leaves, and what belong to the medicines derived from leaves but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from flowers are from five kinds of flowers: vāśaka flowers, nimba flowers, dhātakī flowers, sha ta flowers, padmakesara flowers,17[F.279.a] and what belong to the medicines derived from flowers but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from fruits18 are harītakī, āmalaka, vibhītaka, black pepper, long pepper, and what belong to the medicines derived from fruits but are not used as ingredients in a meal.
“The five kinds of resin are hiṅgu, sarjarasa, lac, beeswax, and ‘heat medicine.’
“Among them, hiṅgu is resin from the hiṅgu tree. Sarjarasa is resin from the sāla tree. Lac is lākṣā.19 Beeswax is siktha.20 ‘Heat medicine’ is resin from other trees.
“What are the five kinds of ashes? They are barley ash, barley-straw ash, ash from the sarjikā tree, sesame ash, and ash from the vāśakā tree.
“What are the five kinds of salt? They are salt from the Indus, brown salt, salt from Suvarcala, salt from Romaka, and salt from the ocean.
“What are the five kinds of astringents? They are āmra astringent, nimba astringent, jambū astringent, śirīṣa astringent, and kośambaka astringent.
“Medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed at the appropriate time if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time. In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed at an inappropriate time (afternoon or night).
“Medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed during the night if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at night.21 In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed after that night.
“Medicines to be consumed within seven days and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed within seven days if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed within seven days. In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed after seven days.
“Medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed after someone has taken formal possession of them as medicines to be consumed throughout life.[F.279.b] Formal possession of the medicines should be taken in this manner: The monk who wishes to consume that medicine should wash his hands before he eats a meal, accept the medicine, sit down before another monk, and say, ‘Venerable One, please pay attention. I, named So-and-so (the monk says his name), take formal possession of this medicine as medicine to be consumed throughout life for myself and my fellow monks.’ He should say this a second and a third time. Formal possession of medicines to be consumed at night and medicines to be consumed within seven days should also be taken in the same manner as medicines to be consumed throughout life.”
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
A monk had a wind illness and went to a physician. The monk said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “consume some fat and you will recover your health.”
The monk said, “Sir, what am I? A cannibal?”
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should consume some fat.”
As the monks did not know what kind of fat they should consume, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said, “Noble ones, since your teacher is omniscient, go to him and ask.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Five kinds of fats should be consumed. What are the five? They are fish fat, porpoise22 fat, crocodile fat, bear fat, and pig fat. But these five kinds of fats should not be consumed if they have been boiled at an inappropriate time, strained at an inappropriate time, or given at an inappropriate time, or if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time.[F.280.a]
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, but strained at an inappropriate time, and given at an inappropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, they should not be consumed.
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time and strained at the appropriate time, but given at an inappropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, the fats should not be consumed.
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, strained at the appropriate time, and given at the appropriate time, but the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, the fats should not be consumed.23
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, strained at the appropriate time, and given at the appropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at the appropriate time, the fats should be consumed within seven days in the same manner that you would consume oil.”
The monk then consumed the fat and his health returned. When his health returned, he threw away the remains of the fat. Later, another monk contracted the same disease, and he also went to the physician and said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
The physician also prescribed fat for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable one, you consumed fat and the physician also prescribed fat for me. Are there any remains of the fat?”
“Indeed there were remains, but I threw them away,” replied the first monk.
The second monk told him, “It wasn’t good to do that.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks should not throw away the remains of fat but should keep them. I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps fat. A monk who keeps fat should give the remains of the fat to another monk. If the first monk does not give the remains to another monk, the first monk should put the remains in the infirmary. Anyone who needs fat should take it. If a monk who keeps the remains of fat does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”
The Blessed One was once dwelling in Śrāvastī.
At that time, a monk had scabies.[F.280.b] He went to a physician and said, “Sir, since I have scabies, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “use an astringent and you will recover your health.”
“Sir, what am I? One who is intoxicated with lust?”24
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should use an astringent.”
As the monks did not know what kind of astringent they should use, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said,25 “Since your teacher is omniscient, he himself must know.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “There are five kinds of astringents: āmra astringent, . . . .”26
When the monk kneaded the astringent and smeared it on his body, the rash spread. The Blessed One said, “You should make the astringent into a powder.”
When the monks ground the damp astringent into a powder, it became lumpy. The Blessed One said, “You should dry the astringent.”
When they dried the astringent in the sun, it lost its efficacy. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry the astringent in the sun.”
When they dried the astringent in the shade, it began to decompose. The Blessed One said, “You should dry the astringent in the shade where it is warm.”
The monk bathed after he smeared his body with the astringent, so the astringent did not work. The Blessed One said, “You should bathe after completely rubbing the astringent with your hands into your skin. If, after you bathe, you again smear the astringent and bathe, the astringent will work.”
When the monk smeared the astringent, the illness went away. He threw the remains of the astringent away. Later, another monk had the same disease, and he also went to the physician and said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
The physician also prescribed an astringent for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable One, you used an astringent and the physician also prescribed an astringent for me. Are there any remains of the astringent?”
The first monk said,27 “I threw them away.”
The second monk told him, “It wasn’t good to do that.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One,[F.281.a] the Blessed One said, “I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps astringents. A monk who keeps astringents should give the remains of the astringent to another monk who needs them. If the first monk does not give the remains to another monk, he should put the remains of the astringent in the infirmary. If a monk who keeps astringents does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
A monk had an eye disease and went to a physician. The monk said, “Sir, since I have an eye disease, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “use collyrium and you will recover your health.”
“Sir, what am I? One who is intoxicated with lust?”28
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should use collyrium.”
As the monks did not know what kind of collyrium to use, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said, “Since your teacher is omniscient, he himself must know.”29 When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “There are five kinds of collyrium: collyrium derived from flowers, collyrium in a liquid state, collyrium in powder form, collyrium in pill form, and collyrium derived from red ocher.”30
The monk recovered his health with the collyrium. Since he left the remains of the collyrium in many different places, the remains were lost. Later, another monk had an eye disease and also went to the physician, and the physician also prescribed the same collyrium for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable one, I also have an eye disease.[F.281.b] Are there any remains of the collyrium?”
The first monk looked for the remains of the collyrium, but could not find them. He said, “Venerable one, indeed there were remains of the collyrium, but they have been lost because I left them in many different places.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks should not leave collyrium in many different places. I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps collyrium. A monk who keeps collyrium should store the collyrium according to its kind. He should keep collyrium derived from flowers in a vessel, collyrium in a liquid state in a bottle, and collyrium in powder form in a tubular vessel. He should put collyrium in pill form and collyrium derived from red ocher into bags, and he should bind and hang them on a peg in the wall. If a monk who keeps collyrium does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”31
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
At that time, the venerable Saikata, his mind agitated, went mad and wandered about. Then some brahmins and householders saw him and said, “Sirs, whose son is this?”
Others replied, “The householder So-and-so’s.”
The brahmins and householders said, “If the venerable Saikata had not gone forth among the masterless śramaṇas, who are the sons of the Śākyans, his kinsmen would have cured him.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks, then cure the monk Saikata, asking a physician for advice.”
The monks went to a physician and said, “Sir, since a monk has a disease like this, prescribe medicine for him.”
“Noble ones,” said the physician, “let him eat raw meat and he will recover his health.”
“Sir,[F.282.a] what is he? A cannibal?”
“Noble ones, this is his medicine. He cannot recover his health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘This is his medicine. He cannot recover his health with other medicines,’ you should give him raw meat.”
The monks gave the venerable Saikata raw meat, but he could not eat the raw meat. The Blessed One said, “You should give him the meat after covering his eyes with a cloth.”
They gave the venerable Saikata raw meat and untied the cloth soon after giving him the raw meat. Then the venerable Saikata saw his hands soiled with raw meat and vomited in revulsion. The Blessed One said, “You should not untie the cloth that soon, but should untie it when you have placed a pure and fine meal before him and he has washed his hands.”
After the health of the venerable Saikata returned, he wanted to eat nothing but raw meat. When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “When you have your health back, you should act in accordance with the established discipline. If you eat raw meat, you become guilty of an offense.”
The following took place in Rājagṛha.
The venerable Pilindavatsa had always had many illnesses and pains since he had gone forth. The monks asked him, “Elder, how do you feel?”
“Venerables, I always have many illnesses and pains. I cannot bear them,” he replied.
“Elder, what did you carry with you formerly?”
He said, “I carried a medicine bag.”
“Why do you not carry it now?”
“The Blessed One has not authorized it.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks, on account of that, I authorize monks to carry a medicine bag.”[F.282.b]
When the monks put unprocessed medicines derived from roots, flowers, stalks, and fruits into the bag, the medicines spoiled. The Blessed One said, “You should gather or bundle the medicines together and hang them on a peg.”
The medicines spoiled and the Blessed One said, “From time to time you should dry them.”
When dried in the sun, the medicines lost their efficacy. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry them in the sun.”
When dried in the shade, the medicines spoiled. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry them in the shade.”
When the monks spread the medicines out and left them, the wind and rain came, but the monks did not bring the medicines inside. The Blessed One said, “You should bring the medicines inside.”
When the Blessed One said, “You should bring the medicines inside,” the monks did not know who should bring them inside. The Blessed One said, “A layman should. If there are no laymen, a novice34 should. If there are no novices, a monk should bring the medicines inside.”
When the monks had brought the medicines inside, they did not consume them, since the medicines had become mixed together. The Blessed One said, “You should consume the medicines after separating them. You should not have any regrets about consuming such medicines. What I have authorized for illnesses should not be done in ordinary circumstances. If you do so, you become guilty of an offense.”
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
The venerable Revata used to doubt everything. Therefore, he was known by the name of “Revata the Doubter”. Early in the morning he dressed, took his robe and his bowl, and entered Śrāvastī for alms. In due course he reached the house of a guḍa35 maker. When he saw that the guḍa was being kneaded with rice flour, he said, “Sir, please don’t knead the guḍa with rice flour.”
“Noble one,” asked the guḍa maker, “do you know anything else that makes guḍa bind together?”
“I do not know anything else that makes guḍa bind together,[F.283.a] but we have to eat guḍa even at inappropriate times.”
The guḍa maker said, “Noble one, whether you eat it at the appropriate time or at inappropriate times, what makes guḍa bind together is this rice flour. Other things do not work.”
Later, when the community had obtained some guḍakhādanika, the venerable Revata did not eat it. His co-resident monks and pupils said, “Master, since the community has obtained some guḍakhādanika, please eat it.”
“Sirs,” replied the venerable Revata, “it is mixed with food to be eaten only at the appropriate time.”36
The Bhaiṣajyavastu, “The Chapter on Medicines,” is a part of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, the corpus of monastic law of one of the most influential Buddhist schools in India. This chapter deals with monastic regulations about medicines. At the same time, it also includes various elements not restricted to such rules: stories of the Buddha and his disciples, a lengthy story of the Buddha’s journey for the purpose of quelling an epidemic and converting a nāga, a number of stories of the Buddha’s former lives narrated by the Buddha himself, and a series of verses recited by the Buddha and his disciples about their former lives. Thus, this chapter preserves not only interesting information about medical knowledge shared by ancient Indian Buddhist monastics but also an abundance of Buddhist narrative literature.
This text was translated by the Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team. Fumi Yao translated the Tibetan text into English and prepared the ancillary materials. Shayne Clarke proofread the translation and ancillary materials.
The translation has been completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
We gratefully acknowledge the generous sponsorship of Leo Tong Chen and his family; Zhang Wei, Li Mo, Zhang Mo Tong and Zhang Mo Lin; (Chi Xian Ren) Mao Gui Rong and Chi Mei; and Joseph Tse 謝偉傑, Patricia Tse 鄒碧玲 and family, in dedication to all eczema sufferers. Their support has helped make the work on this translation possible.
The Bhaiṣajyavastu, “The Chapter on Medicines,” is the sixth chapter of the Vinayavastu, “The Chapters on Monastic Discipline,” of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. The Mūlasarvāstivāda was one of the most influential Buddhist schools in India, and its Vinaya, the corpus of monastic law, is reported to have circulated not only in various parts of the Indian subcontinent but also in Southeast Asia, at least in the late seventh century. When this Vinaya was composed is an unresolved question, and we are presently unable to say more than that the corpus seems to have taken its present shape in the first few centuries of the common era.1
The Vinayavastu is one of the four divisions of this voluminous Vinaya and is a collection of seventeen thematic chapters, each of which deals with monastic rules about a specific topic such as ordination, clothing, and so on. Among these chapters, the Bhaiṣajyavastu is the lengthiest (in the Tibetan translation) or the second lengthiest (in the Sanskrit manuscript). As is indicated by its title, this chapter is concerned with rules about medicines to be used and foods to be eaten by monastics. Actually, however, most of the text is not related to any such rules, at least not directly; accounts of rules are concentrated mostly in the first and last parts of the chapter, which together make up less than 20 percent of the entire chapter, and the rest of the text is filled with various narrative stories about the Buddha and other characters, and stories of their former lives. Many parallels to sūtras, which present doctrines rather than monastic law, are also included in this chapter. Thus, it not only provides interesting information about medical knowledge shared by ancient Indian Buddhist monastics but is also a vast treasure trove of Buddhist narrative literature, and it even opens a number of doors to another canonical corpus, the Sūtrapiṭaka of the Mūlasarvāstivādins, most of which is lost today. The abundance of narrative elements and sūtras is characteristic of the law code of the Mūlasarvāstivādins as a whole, and the Bhaiṣajyavastu is outstanding in this regard.
The outline of the Bhaiṣajyavastu based on the Tibetan version is as follows. The chapter opens with an account of the Buddha’s permission for monks to use medicines, and explanations of various medicines follow. After the account of permission to boil almsfood that is not completely cooked, however, the text suddenly begins to narrate the biography of Pūrṇa, a disciple of the Buddha. After this story ends, another unrelated story begins, explaining how the city of Rājagṛha was endangered by a nāga king named Apalāla. In this story, at the request of the citizens of Vaiśālī and King Ajātaśatru of Magadha, the Buddha leaves Rājagṛha and journeys with his disciples to quell an epidemic in Vaiśālī and convert the nāga king, who lives in the northern region. The first part of this journey generally corresponds to the Buddha’s final journey as narrated in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra in the Dīrghāgama. However, in this text the story develops differently from the sūtra after the Buddha quells the epidemic in Vaiśālī, the first destination. Although he hints at his approaching nirvāṇa, the Buddha travels to Kuśinagarī without entering the city of Pāpā, which is an important place in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra. In the end, the Buddha does not enter nirvāṇa in the story in the Bhaiṣajyavastu. Various episodes are narrated regarding each place the Buddha visits, and sometimes they appear quite jumbled—the Buddha even “arrives” at Rājagṛha, the starting point of the journey, before he reaches the northern region, that is, his second destination. The Buddha flies through the air from a place named Rohitaka to the northern region, converts the nāga king Apalāla, returns, and continues traveling. In Śrāvastī, answering a question of King Prasenajit of Kosala, the Buddha narrates many stories of his former lives. Then the Buddha and his five hundred disciples visit Lake Anavatapta by means of their magical power, and there each of the disciples recites verses about his former lives, as does the Buddha, after which they return to Śrāvastī. The story of their journey continues until Vaiśālī. After an episode in Vaiśālī, accounts of various rules follow, which seem not to be related to the preceding story but to be simply a list of episodes relevant to rules. The chapter closes with an account of a monk who is bitten by a poisonous snake and then saved by the Buddha with a charm, accompanied by two stories about the former lives of the Buddha and the monk.
Today, the Bhaiṣajyavastu is extant in three languages: Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese. There had been available only a single Sanskrit manuscript of the Vinayavastu that included the Bhaiṣajyavastu, the so-called Gilgit manuscript, since its discovery in the 1930s and publication by Nalinaksha Dutt.2 At the end of the twentieth century, however, another Sanskrit manuscript of the Bhaiṣajyavastu was identified by Klaus Wille, and the present translator is now preparing to publish a transliteration.3 Unfortunately, about half of the Bhaiṣajyavastu is lost in the Gilgit manuscript, and the newly identified manuscript is only fragmentary. Although there are some other manuscript fragments from Central Asia identified with the Vinayavastu, there are no fragments identified with the Bhaiṣajyavastu other than some corresponding to the verses of the brahmin Nīlabhūti, which appear in the middle of the chapter.4 In some parts where both manuscripts are unavailable, the Divyāvadāna, a Sanskrit anthology of narrative stories, helps, for many of its chapters are extracts from the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya.5
The Chinese translation was made by Yijing 義淨 (635–713) around 700
Only the Tibetan translation preserves the complete text of the Bhaiṣajyavastu. According to the colophon to the Vinayavastu, the text was translated by Sarvajñādeva, Vidyākaraprabha, Dharmākara, and Palgyi Lhünpo and proofread by Vidyākaraprabha and Paltsek. The translation seems to have taken place in the ninth century, and it is the only Tibetan version of the text.
There are also several secondary translations such as the Mongolian version.
Various differences at various levels, from words to narrative structures, are found between the extant Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan versions. Many of these differences seem to have already existed in the Sanskrit manuscripts on which the Chinese and Tibetan translations were based.
In some Kangyurs, there is a colophon at the end of volume kha (Degé, Lithang, Choné) that mentions a revision of the translation at the time of the fourth Shamarpa (1453–1524), whereas other Kangyurs (Yongle, Peking, Narthang, Urga, Lhasa) do not have this colophon.7 In some other Kangyurs (Tokyo, London, Stok Palace, Shey Palace, Phukdrak), the corresponding part of the text is not located at the end of the volume, and no such colophon exists, either.
Most of the extant folios of the Gilgit manuscript corresponding to the Bhaiṣajyavastu were edited and published by Dutt in 1947, and since then several passages in the text have been edited or re-edited by other scholars such as Heinz Bechert, Raniero Gnoli, Klaus Wille, Jin-il Chung, and Hisashi Matsumura. Black-and-white photographs of the manuscript were published by Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra in 1974 and reprinted in 1995, and color photographs in high resolution were published by Shayne Clarke in 2014 together with detailed bibliographical surveys and concordances of the extant versions.
Since Alexander Csoma Kőrösi introduced the Tibetan Buddhist canon to the Western world in 1836,8 many of the stories in the Bhaiṣajyavastu have been translated into various modern languages from the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan versions. Ryūzan Nishimoto translated the entire Chinese version of the Bhaiṣajyavastu into classical Japanese in kakikudashi style in 1933. In this publication, he supplemented the Chinese version by translating the missing portions of the Bhaiṣajyavastu from the Tibetan version. The first complete translation of the Bhaiṣajyavastu into a modern language was a Japanese translation of the Tibetan version made by the present translator, which was published in 2013.
The present translation is based on the text as it appears in the Degé Kangyur, and its readings have been corrected on the basis of the Stok Palace manuscript and, in a few cases, several other Kangyurs, too. Our reason for using the Degé and Stok Palace Kangyurs is that it is mainly these two editions that have been used in recent studies of the Vinaya. The translation has also been modified on the basis of the Sanskrit and Chinese versions, as is mentioned in a note in each case. References to the Gilgit manuscript in notes are based on the manuscript itself unless reliable partial transliterations are otherwise available, while the page numbers in Dutt’s edition have been provided for convenience.
The sections and subsections of the present translation follow the uddāna system in the text itself. The Bhaiṣajyavastu includes eleven uddānas, or summaries of contents, each of which is placed at the beginning of a section, and the first items of the uddānas are collected into a piṇḍoddāna, or general summary of contents, which is given at the beginning of the entire text. There are some discrepancies between the uddānas and the main text, and these may represent vestiges of textual development.9 In some cases where it seemed necessary, the present translator has divided stories that are not mentioned in the uddānas into subdivisions and titled them according to their main topics.
As is usual in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, there are a large number of repetitions in the Bhaiṣajyavastu. The text abbreviates many of these repetitions, using certain phrases such as zhes bya ba nas and zhes bya ba’i bar gong ma bzhin no. The present translation simply uses ellipses (…) for these phrases to indicate an abbreviation.
Notes to the present translation are different from the notes to the translator’s Japanese translation. Many of the notes to the Japanese translation had to be omitted or abridged in view of 84000’s guidelines because they were too detailed and lengthy. On the other hand, the notes to the present translation include many new pieces of information that are not found in the notes to the Japanese version. Thus, for scholarly purposes, readers are advised to consult the notes to both versions if possible.
The entire chapter is thus summarized.
Summary of Contents:
The Buddha, the Blessed One, was staying in the Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park. On that occasion some monks[F.278.a] caught an autumn disease. Because they had caught an autumn disease, they turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.
The buddhas, the blessed ones, ask though they already know. The Buddha, the Blessed One, asked the venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, why have these monks turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened?”
The venerable Ānanda replied, “Honored One, these monks caught an autumn disease. Because they caught an autumn disease, they have turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened.”
“Ānanda,” said the Blessed One, “on account of that, I authorize10 monks to consume medicines.”
When the Blessed One said “monks may consume medicines,” the monks consumed medicines at the appropriate time (morning)11 but did not consume them after the appropriate time, because they were monks who were in the habit of eating at the appropriate time. Therefore, the monks turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.
The buddhas, the blessed ones, ask though they already know. The Buddha, the Blessed One, asked the venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, I said ‘monks may consume medicines.’ Why, then, have these monks turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened?”
The venerable Ānanda replied, “The Blessed One said ‘monks may consume medicines,’ but they consumed medicines at the appropriate time and did not consume them after the appropriate time, because they are monks who are in the habit of eating at the appropriate time. Therefore, they turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.”[F.278.b]
“Ānanda, on account of that, I authorize monks to consume four kinds of medicines: medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life.12
“Among them, the medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time are manthā,13 boiled rice,14 kulmāṣa, meat, and apūpa.
“The medicines to be consumed at night are the eight kinds of drinks: coconut drink, banana drink, kola drink, aśvattha drink, udumbara drink, parūṣaka15 drink, grape drink, and kharjūra16 drink.”
A Section Index:
“Medicines to be consumed within seven days are butter oil, oil, phāṇita, honey, and śarkarā.
“Medicines to be consumed throughout life are medicines derived from roots, medicines derived from stalks, medicines derived from leaves, medicines derived from flowers, medicines derived from fruits, the five kinds of resin, the five kinds of ashes, the five kinds of salt, and the five kinds of astringents.
“Among these medicines, the medicines derived from roots are musta, vaca, turmeric, ginger, ativiṣā, and what belong to the medicines derived from roots but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from stalks are sandal, cavikā, padmaka, devadāru, guḍūcī, dāruharidrā, and what belong to the medicines derived from stalks but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from leaves are from paṭola leaves, vāśaka leaves, nimba leaves, kośātakī leaves, saptaparṇa leaves, and what belong to the medicines derived from leaves but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from flowers are from five kinds of flowers: vāśaka flowers, nimba flowers, dhātakī flowers, sha ta flowers, padmakesara flowers,17[F.279.a] and what belong to the medicines derived from flowers but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from fruits18 are harītakī, āmalaka, vibhītaka, black pepper, long pepper, and what belong to the medicines derived from fruits but are not used as ingredients in a meal.
“The five kinds of resin are hiṅgu, sarjarasa, lac, beeswax, and ‘heat medicine.’
“Among them, hiṅgu is resin from the hiṅgu tree. Sarjarasa is resin from the sāla tree. Lac is lākṣā.19 Beeswax is siktha.20 ‘Heat medicine’ is resin from other trees.
“What are the five kinds of ashes? They are barley ash, barley-straw ash, ash from the sarjikā tree, sesame ash, and ash from the vāśakā tree.
“What are the five kinds of salt? They are salt from the Indus, brown salt, salt from Suvarcala, salt from Romaka, and salt from the ocean.
“What are the five kinds of astringents? They are āmra astringent, nimba astringent, jambū astringent, śirīṣa astringent, and kośambaka astringent.
“Medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed at the appropriate time if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time. In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed at an inappropriate time (afternoon or night).
“Medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed during the night if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at night.21 In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed after that night.
“Medicines to be consumed within seven days and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed within seven days if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed within seven days. In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed after seven days.
“Medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed after someone has taken formal possession of them as medicines to be consumed throughout life.[F.279.b] Formal possession of the medicines should be taken in this manner: The monk who wishes to consume that medicine should wash his hands before he eats a meal, accept the medicine, sit down before another monk, and say, ‘Venerable One, please pay attention. I, named So-and-so (the monk says his name), take formal possession of this medicine as medicine to be consumed throughout life for myself and my fellow monks.’ He should say this a second and a third time. Formal possession of medicines to be consumed at night and medicines to be consumed within seven days should also be taken in the same manner as medicines to be consumed throughout life.”
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
A monk had a wind illness and went to a physician. The monk said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “consume some fat and you will recover your health.”
The monk said, “Sir, what am I? A cannibal?”
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should consume some fat.”
As the monks did not know what kind of fat they should consume, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said, “Noble ones, since your teacher is omniscient, go to him and ask.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Five kinds of fats should be consumed. What are the five? They are fish fat, porpoise22 fat, crocodile fat, bear fat, and pig fat. But these five kinds of fats should not be consumed if they have been boiled at an inappropriate time, strained at an inappropriate time, or given at an inappropriate time, or if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time.[F.280.a]
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, but strained at an inappropriate time, and given at an inappropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, they should not be consumed.
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time and strained at the appropriate time, but given at an inappropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, the fats should not be consumed.
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, strained at the appropriate time, and given at the appropriate time, but the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, the fats should not be consumed.23
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, strained at the appropriate time, and given at the appropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at the appropriate time, the fats should be consumed within seven days in the same manner that you would consume oil.”
The monk then consumed the fat and his health returned. When his health returned, he threw away the remains of the fat. Later, another monk contracted the same disease, and he also went to the physician and said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
The physician also prescribed fat for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable one, you consumed fat and the physician also prescribed fat for me. Are there any remains of the fat?”
“Indeed there were remains, but I threw them away,” replied the first monk.
The second monk told him, “It wasn’t good to do that.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks should not throw away the remains of fat but should keep them. I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps fat. A monk who keeps fat should give the remains of the fat to another monk. If the first monk does not give the remains to another monk, the first monk should put the remains in the infirmary. Anyone who needs fat should take it. If a monk who keeps the remains of fat does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”
The Blessed One was once dwelling in Śrāvastī.
At that time, a monk had scabies.[F.280.b] He went to a physician and said, “Sir, since I have scabies, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “use an astringent and you will recover your health.”
“Sir, what am I? One who is intoxicated with lust?”24
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should use an astringent.”
As the monks did not know what kind of astringent they should use, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said,25 “Since your teacher is omniscient, he himself must know.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “There are five kinds of astringents: āmra astringent, . . . .”26
When the monk kneaded the astringent and smeared it on his body, the rash spread. The Blessed One said, “You should make the astringent into a powder.”
When the monks ground the damp astringent into a powder, it became lumpy. The Blessed One said, “You should dry the astringent.”
When they dried the astringent in the sun, it lost its efficacy. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry the astringent in the sun.”
When they dried the astringent in the shade, it began to decompose. The Blessed One said, “You should dry the astringent in the shade where it is warm.”
The monk bathed after he smeared his body with the astringent, so the astringent did not work. The Blessed One said, “You should bathe after completely rubbing the astringent with your hands into your skin. If, after you bathe, you again smear the astringent and bathe, the astringent will work.”
When the monk smeared the astringent, the illness went away. He threw the remains of the astringent away. Later, another monk had the same disease, and he also went to the physician and said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
The physician also prescribed an astringent for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable One, you used an astringent and the physician also prescribed an astringent for me. Are there any remains of the astringent?”
The first monk said,27 “I threw them away.”
The second monk told him, “It wasn’t good to do that.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One,[F.281.a] the Blessed One said, “I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps astringents. A monk who keeps astringents should give the remains of the astringent to another monk who needs them. If the first monk does not give the remains to another monk, he should put the remains of the astringent in the infirmary. If a monk who keeps astringents does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
A monk had an eye disease and went to a physician. The monk said, “Sir, since I have an eye disease, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “use collyrium and you will recover your health.”
“Sir, what am I? One who is intoxicated with lust?”28
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should use collyrium.”
As the monks did not know what kind of collyrium to use, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said, “Since your teacher is omniscient, he himself must know.”29 When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “There are five kinds of collyrium: collyrium derived from flowers, collyrium in a liquid state, collyrium in powder form, collyrium in pill form, and collyrium derived from red ocher.”30
The monk recovered his health with the collyrium. Since he left the remains of the collyrium in many different places, the remains were lost. Later, another monk had an eye disease and also went to the physician, and the physician also prescribed the same collyrium for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable one, I also have an eye disease.[F.281.b] Are there any remains of the collyrium?”
The first monk looked for the remains of the collyrium, but could not find them. He said, “Venerable one, indeed there were remains of the collyrium, but they have been lost because I left them in many different places.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks should not leave collyrium in many different places. I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps collyrium. A monk who keeps collyrium should store the collyrium according to its kind. He should keep collyrium derived from flowers in a vessel, collyrium in a liquid state in a bottle, and collyrium in powder form in a tubular vessel. He should put collyrium in pill form and collyrium derived from red ocher into bags, and he should bind and hang them on a peg in the wall. If a monk who keeps collyrium does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”31
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
At that time, the venerable Saikata, his mind agitated, went mad and wandered about. Then some brahmins and householders saw him and said, “Sirs, whose son is this?”
Others replied, “The householder So-and-so’s.”
The brahmins and householders said, “If the venerable Saikata had not gone forth among the masterless śramaṇas, who are the sons of the Śākyans, his kinsmen would have cured him.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks, then cure the monk Saikata, asking a physician for advice.”
The monks went to a physician and said, “Sir, since a monk has a disease like this, prescribe medicine for him.”
“Noble ones,” said the physician, “let him eat raw meat and he will recover his health.”
“Sir,[F.282.a] what is he? A cannibal?”
“Noble ones, this is his medicine. He cannot recover his health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘This is his medicine. He cannot recover his health with other medicines,’ you should give him raw meat.”
The monks gave the venerable Saikata raw meat, but he could not eat the raw meat. The Blessed One said, “You should give him the meat after covering his eyes with a cloth.”
They gave the venerable Saikata raw meat and untied the cloth soon after giving him the raw meat. Then the venerable Saikata saw his hands soiled with raw meat and vomited in revulsion. The Blessed One said, “You should not untie the cloth that soon, but should untie it when you have placed a pure and fine meal before him and he has washed his hands.”
After the health of the venerable Saikata returned, he wanted to eat nothing but raw meat. When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “When you have your health back, you should act in accordance with the established discipline. If you eat raw meat, you become guilty of an offense.”
The following took place in Rājagṛha.
The venerable Pilindavatsa had always had many illnesses and pains since he had gone forth. The monks asked him, “Elder, how do you feel?”
“Venerables, I always have many illnesses and pains. I cannot bear them,” he replied.
“Elder, what did you carry with you formerly?”
He said, “I carried a medicine bag.”
“Why do you not carry it now?”
“The Blessed One has not authorized it.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks, on account of that, I authorize monks to carry a medicine bag.”[F.282.b]
When the monks put unprocessed medicines derived from roots, flowers, stalks, and fruits into the bag, the medicines spoiled. The Blessed One said, “You should gather or bundle the medicines together and hang them on a peg.”
The medicines spoiled and the Blessed One said, “From time to time you should dry them.”
When dried in the sun, the medicines lost their efficacy. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry them in the sun.”
When dried in the shade, the medicines spoiled. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry them in the shade.”
When the monks spread the medicines out and left them, the wind and rain came, but the monks did not bring the medicines inside. The Blessed One said, “You should bring the medicines inside.”
When the Blessed One said, “You should bring the medicines inside,” the monks did not know who should bring them inside. The Blessed One said, “A layman should. If there are no laymen, a novice34 should. If there are no novices, a monk should bring the medicines inside.”
When the monks had brought the medicines inside, they did not consume them, since the medicines had become mixed together. The Blessed One said, “You should consume the medicines after separating them. You should not have any regrets about consuming such medicines. What I have authorized for illnesses should not be done in ordinary circumstances. If you do so, you become guilty of an offense.”
The following took place in Śrāvastī.
The venerable Revata used to doubt everything. Therefore, he was known by the name of “Revata the Doubter”. Early in the morning he dressed, took his robe and his bowl, and entered Śrāvastī for alms. In due course he reached the house of a guḍa35 maker. When he saw that the guḍa was being kneaded with rice flour, he said, “Sir, please don’t knead the guḍa with rice flour.”
“Noble one,” asked the guḍa maker, “do you know anything else that makes guḍa bind together?”
“I do not know anything else that makes guḍa bind together,[F.283.a] but we have to eat guḍa even at inappropriate times.”
The guḍa maker said, “Noble one, whether you eat it at the appropriate time or at inappropriate times, what makes guḍa bind together is this rice flour. Other things do not work.”
Later, when the community had obtained some guḍakhādanika, the venerable Revata did not eat it. His co-resident monks and pupils said, “Master, since the community has obtained some guḍakhādanika, please eat it.”
“Sirs,” replied the venerable Revata, “it is mixed with food to be eaten only at the appropriate time.”36
The Skt. verb anu√jñā, usually translated gnang ba/rjes su gnang ba, covers a range of meanings, such as “allow” and “order.” The present translation adopts “authorize” as the translation of the verb in the context of Vinaya rules. Cf. Yao 2015, 221n15.
Monastics are not supposed to eat anything after noon, whereas they are allowed to drink several kinds of juice. Cf. Vvibh, ja 151.a.3–152.b.2; Taishō no. 1442, 23.824b7–c19.
For a related account in the Muktaka of the Ug, see pa F.159.b.1–4; Taishō no. 1456, 24.440b13–18. Cf. Kishino 2016, 242.
GBhv manthā; GM maṇḍaḥ. In the Śrautasūtra, manthā is rice or barley that has been threshed, roasted, and mixed with water or milk (Einoo 1984).
Skt. odana. In the Śrautasūtra, odana is rice or barley that has been threshed and boiled with water or milk (Einoo 1984).
Tib. dus su rung ba gang yin pa dang / thun tshod du rung ba gang yin pa dang / zhag bdun pa gang yin pa dang / ’tsho ba’i bar du bcang ba gang yin pa de gal te thun tshod du rung ba dang ’dres par gyur na thun tshod la yongs su spyad par bya: “When medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time or medicines to be consumed at night or medicines to be consumed in seven days or medicines to be consumed throughout life are mixed with medicines to be consumed at night, these should be consumed during the night.” This, however, contradicts the above rule. Skt. and Ch. do not include “medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time.” We opt for the reading in Skt. and Ch.
GBhv śiśukā; Ch. jiang tun 江豚 (“porpoise” or “river dolphin”); Tib. sbal pa dkar po (“white frog”); GM śuśukā. We opt for the reading in GBhv and Ch.
This monk might have mistaken the kaṣāya for a type of cosmetic used for the body. For kaṣāya as a cosmetic, see Matsuyama 1980–2002, no. 35. The same situation is found in the next section, which is about collyrium.
The passage “When the monks reported . . . . The physician said” is abbreviated in the text with the expression “as stated above.”
Skt., Tib.: “āmra astringent, as stated above” (omitting nimba and the text after it). Ch. states the list in full, and explains how to use these astringents: “You should crush and boil the bark or leaves of these medicines and smear them on your body.”
The passage from “and said, ‘Sir, since I have a disease” up to “The first monk said” is abbreviated in the text with the expression “as stated above.”
The phrase “he himself must know” is abbreviated in the text with the expression “as stated above.”
Tib. btsag yug snam gyi mig sman (“red ocher collyrium”); Skt. sauvīrakāñjana; Ch. sao pi luo shi an shan na 騷毘羅石安膳那 (“antimony collyrium”).
Cf. the Nidāna in the Ug, pa F.81.a.6–81.b.1; Taishō no. 1456, 24.420a7–12 (Kishino 2013, 144–45).
Skt. śrāmaṇeraka; Ch. qiu ji 求寂 (“a novice”); Tib. dge sbyong (“śramaṇa,” “an ascetic”). We opt for Skt. and Ch.
According to the Vinayavibhaṅga, guḍa is the same thing as phāṇita (cf. D: ’dul ba cha, F.212.ab).
Guḍakhādanika can be eaten both at the appropriate time and at inappropriate times because it is not a meal but a medicine to be consumed within seven days. Rice is to be eaten only at the appropriate time because it is a meal. In this situation, guḍakhādanika and rice flour are mixed together. Revata was afraid that if he ate the guḍakhādanika he would become guilty of an offense.
The last words of this summary, be’i ra to// sprin can bya rog rnams yin no, cannot be identified in the following passages. GBhv is damaged here.
Skt. *calācala (“ever-moving”); Tib. g.yo ba dang mi g.yo ba (“moving and not moving”). This stock passage about one who realizes the state of an arhat, “He, exerting himself … Indra and Upendra,” appears in the Sbhv, which gives us the original Sanskrit.
Whereas this section of the Bhv prohibits only eating the flesh of elephants and nāgas, the Muktaka of the Ug prohibits the flesh of other kinds of beings such as crows, dogs, raptors, mules, foxes, and monkeys (pa F.157.a.2–158.b.7; Taishō no. 1456, 24.439b21–24). Cf. Kishino 2016, 242.
Though not entirely clear, what is most likely meant is that the king might suspect that the pious gods, etc., have killed his elephants to offer their flesh to Buddhist monks.
Ch. ji guo chu ye 既過初夜; Tib. de’i mtshan mo ’das nas (“after that night had passed”). We opt for Ch.
Although Tib. bya ka lan da ka gnas pa seems to be a translation of *Kalandakanivāsa, this name is spelled Kalandakanivāpa in other chapters of the Vinayavastu where Skt. is extant. For the etymology of the name, see SbhvG i 163–166.
The Nidāna of the Ug gives an account related to this rule in the Bhv, and its Ch. version preserves the Hemorrhoids Sūtra, which includes mantras, whereas the Tib. version does not mention such a sūtra. The sūtra has also been translated independently both in Ch. (Taishō no. 1325) and Tib. (Arśapraśamanasūtra, Toh 621). For details of the passage in the Nidāna, see Kishino 2013, 146–47, 347–48. For editions and studies of both independent sūtras, see Yamanaka et al. 2011. For comparisons between Buddhist and non-Buddhist literature on hemorrhoids, see Yamanaka et al. 2012.
Ch. 時王大瞋。乃遣大臣。斬惡人首。: “At that time, the king became very angry, sent a minister, and cut off the wicked man’s head.” Judging from its several examples in the vinaya literature, the phrase “I have renounced [a person]” uttered by a king means a death sentence. For the most clear example, see SbhvG ii 171; nga 226.a.
The Āyuḥparyantasūtra (Matsumura 1989, 83–84) and the Udānavarga (Uv 8.2–5) provide us with Sanskrit verses parallel to these lines, which are lost in Skt. Bhv.
Tib. gru sum; Ch. san zhong se yao 三種澁藥; Skt. *trikaṭuka: “black and long pepper and dry ginger.” MW s.v. trikaṭuka. Cf. Pāli: tekaṭula, “black sesame, rice, and mugga bean,” Vin i 210.28.
Tib. chab mar (lit. “water-oil”); Ch. su 酥 (translation of Skt. sarpis, “clarified butter, ghee”).
Within the boundary, cooking and storing food is prohibited. Ānanda’s answer may sound odd because the setting of this story is “a village where the boundary had not been fixed.” However, a kind of boundary can be established even in a place where the boundary has not been fixed (Poṣv 326–27 § 49.1).
This story of Pūrṇa has a parallel in the Pūrṇāvadāna, chapter 2 of the Divy (English trsl. Tatelman 2000; Rotman 2008–17, i).
According to the Arthaśāstra, “A child begotten by a master with his own female slave shall be considered free along with the mother” (Tatelman 2000, 82n9).
According to the Manusmṛti, the first sixteen days of the menstrual period were considered to be suitable for pregnancy, although having intercourse in the first four days is not recommended (Manu 3.46–47). For other views on the appropriate time for conception, see Kritzer 2014, 12. Cf., also, ibid. 40–41; 230–32.
Although this passage is abbreviated here, it has not yet appeared in full in the Bhv. The full passage appears in Chapter Nine, X. F. 9. b. The Story of Prince Sudhana.
The Sanskrit term translated “loans” here is uddhāra, and those translated “two different types of deposits” are nyāsa and nikṣepa. Cf. Kane 1973, 454–61; Sarma 1997, 192; and Olivelle 2015, q.v.
Although there has been no explanation in the story, it would be safe to assume that Bhava’s wife and sons abandoned him only temporarily and came back to him after he recovered from the illness.
Tib. ’phel; Skt. (Divy) bhidyate (“split, broken”). The meaning of the Tib. (“Mantras increase”) is unclear to the present translator, whereas there seems to be no problem in the Skt.
This verse appears frequently in the MSV and other Buddhist and non-Buddhist literature. Cf. Uv 1.22 (cf. Mizuno 1995, 11. Note that there is some confusion in the right column of the table), Rāmāyana 2.98.16, etc.
These texts have been thought by scholars such as Lamotte and Mayeda to belong to the Kṣudrakapiṭaka of the Mūlasarvāstivādins (Lamotte 1957; Mayeda 1964). Among these texts, the Śailagāthā is included in the Bhv itself: B. The Conversion of Kaineya and Śaila (Verse).
Tib. sangs rgyas dgongs pas lus gzugs bkab par gyur; Skt. ms nepacchito buddhamanorathena (147v7); cf. SbhvG ii 141; PrjvVW III 263 nepacchitā as pl. The Divy gives naiva sthito, which Rotman emends to evaṃ sthito (Rotman 2008–17, i 88: “and so he remained by the will of the Buddha,” and 406n271), whereas Hiraoka reads nepatthito (Hiraoka 2011, 246: “He clothed himself”). The present translation is based on Tib.
Tib. lacks this part of the conversation: “Pūrṇa, the people of Śroṇāparāntaka are fierce…” up to “…but they do not strike me with sticks or swords,” while the Divy and Ch. provide it.
This alludes to a story about monks’ suicide in the Vinayavibhaṅga (D ca F.133.a; Taishō no. 1442, 23.659c).
Only in the Bhv and the Divy does the story of Pūrṇa in these texts continue beyond Pūrṇa’s attainment of arhatship with Pūrṇa alive. In the other parallel stories, such as SĀc 311, Taishō no. 108, MN 145, and SN 35.88, Pūrṇa achieves complete emancipation (parinirvāṇa) at this point. See Yao 2010, 3.2.1.
Skt. (Divy) candanamālaḥ prāsādaḥ; Tib. tsan dan gyi phreng ba’i khang bzangs: “a palace garlanded with sandalwood.” Cf. BHSD s.v. māla.
The “venerable elder Pūrṇa” referred to here is a different person from Pūrṇa who has been the subject of this story so far. There are at least two different interpretations of the word kuṇḍopadhānīyaka, one considering it to qualify the person by his birthplace as Tib. does (Burnouf 1876, 232; Iwamoto 1967, 68; and Hiraoka 2007, i 109) and the other by his practice, using a water pot (kuṇḍa) as a pillow (upadhāna) (Iwamoto 1979, 16; Tatelman 2000, 89; Rotman 2008–17, i 409). The present translation follows the former. As Rotman notes, a monk named Kuṇḍadhāna Thera is known to Pali literature. Although he is said to be “the first among those who received food tickets (salāka)” (DPPN, q.v.), there seem to be few other things in common between this person and the “venerable elder Pūrṇa” in the present story.
Skt. (Divy) pihitāny apāyadvārāṇi; Ch. guan bi e qu 關閉惡趣. Tib. ngan song gi sgo ni bkum: “destroyed the gate to inferior states of existence.” We opt for Skt. and Ch.
A formula for ordination that consists of the words, “Come, monk.” This is one of the ways of ordaining a man as monk and is said to have been used by the Buddha until he established the rules of the standard ordination ceremony.
A class of gods who inhabit the first heaven of the realm of form.
A class of gods who inhabit the lowest among the six heavens of the desire realm, the dwelling place of the Four Great Kings.
A layperson who makes things legally permissible in the context of Buddhist monastic law, doing tasks that are not allowed for monks.
The sixth heaven of the realm of form; also the name of the gods living there.
The first of the “pure abodes;” also the name of the gods living there.
A river that flows down from the lake Anavatapta.
A shrine built to commemorate the Buddha’s going forth.
A shrine built to commemorate the Buddha’s going forth.
A king who was the Buddha in a former life.
A bird who shares one body with another bird, Dharma.
A place in Śūrasena.
A village.
A kind of fragrant aloe wood.
The basic components out of which the world and the personal self are formed, usually listed as a set of five.
(1) A brahmin. (2) A brahmin king.
A village.
Indra’s elephant.
A mountain.
The son of King Śreṇya Bimbisāra, who later becomes the king of Magadha.
A river.
One of the six teachers at the time of the Buddha.
The fifth and highest of the “pure abodes;” also the name of the gods living there.
A yakṣiṇī.
A young brahmin and disciple of Pauṣkarasāri.
A courtesan.
The tenth heaven of the realm of form; also the name of the gods living there.
(1) A disciple of the Buddha. (2) A disciple of a former Buddha. (3) A disciple of a future Buddha. (4) A king in the past.
The head of a guild who was Jyotiṣka in a former life.
A wealthy merchant in the town of Śrāvastī, famous for his generosity to the poor, who became a patron of the Buddha Śākyamuni. He bought Prince Jeta’s Grove (Skt. Jetavana), to be the Buddha’s first monastery, a place where the monks could stay during the monsoon.
A lake that is considered the source of four great rivers, including the Ganges, in Buddhist cosmology.
A country.
A village or town.
A buddha in the past.
A ṛṣi in the past.
(1) A disciple of the Buddha. (2) A buddha in the past.
Lit. “Without a Straw.” A nāga king, who was the brahmin Agnidatta in a former life.
A yakṣa in the country of Bhraṣṭolā.
A buddha in the past.
The fifth heaven of the realm of form; also the name of the gods living there.
The eighth heaven of the realm of form; also the name of the gods living there.
A yakṣa.
A pastry made of flour. Also rendered in this translation as “pastry.”
A teacher who was the Buddha in a former life.
A female arhat, one who has achieved the fourth and final level of attainment on the śrāvaka path and attained liberation with the cessation of all afflictive emotions.
One who has achieved the fourth and final level of attainment on the śrāvaka path and attained liberation with the cessation of all afflictive emotions.
A lay brother living in Nādikā.
A buddha in the past.
A lost verse text possibly included in the Kṣudrakapiṭaka of the Mūlasarvāstivādins.
A buddha in the past.
ched du brjod pa’i tshoms (Udānavarga). Toh 326, Degé Kangyur vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 209.a–253.a. English translation in Champa Thupten Zongtse (1990).
sman gyi gzhi (Bhaiṣajyavastu). Toh 1, ch. 6, Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 277.b–311.a; vol. 2 (’dul ba, kha), folios 1.a–317.a; and vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 1.a–50.a.
sman gyi gzhi. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–2009, vol. 1, pp. 644–721, vol. 2, pp. 3–745, vol. 3, pp. 3–117.
man gyi gzhi (Bhaiṣajyavastu). Stok no. 1, ch. 6, Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 396.b–455.a; vol. 2 (’dul ba, kha), folios 1.a–444.a; and vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 1.b–56.b.
Bhaiṣajyavastu in the Gilgit manuscripts. Dutt 1942–50, pt. 1 (1947).
Genben shuoyiqieyoubu pinaiye yaoshi 根本説一切有部毘奈耶藥事, Taishō no. 1448, 24.1a1–97a24.
yang dag par ldan pa’i lung (Saṃyuktāgama). Not included in the Kangyur. Cf. Za ahan jing 雜阿含經, Taishō no. 99, 2.1a1–373b18.
’dul ba gzhi (Vinayavastu). Toh 1, 17 chaps. Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 1.a1–311.a; vol. 2 (’dul ba, kha), folios 1.a–317.a; vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 1.a–293.a; and vol. 4 (’dul ba, nga), folios 1.a–302.a5.
’dul ba rnam par ’byed pa (Vinayavibhaṅga). Toh 3, Degé Kangyur vol. 5 (’dul ba, ca), folios 21.a1–292.a; vol. 6 (’dul ba, cha) folios 1.a–287.a; vol. 7 (’dul ba, ja) folios 1.a–287.a; and vol. 8 (’dul ba, nya) folios 1.a–269.a6.
’dul ba phran tshegs kyi gzhi (Vinayakṣudrakavastu). Toh 6, Degé Kangyur vol. 10 (’dul ba, tha), folios 1.a1–310.a; vol. 11 (’dul ba, da), folios 1.a–333.a7.
’dul ba gzhung bla ma (Vinayottaragrantha). Toh 7, Degé Kangyur vol. 12 (’dul ba, na), folios 1.a1–302.a; vol. 13 (’dul ba, pa) 1.a–313.a5.
ko lpags kyi gzhi (Carmavastu). Toh 1-5, Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 251.a–277.b.
dge slong ma’i ’dul ba rnam par ’byed pa (Bhikṣuṇīvinayavibhaṅga). Toh 5, Degé Kangyur vol. 9 (’dul ba, ta), folios 25.b–328.a.
dge ’dun gyi dbyen gyi gzhi (Saṅghabhedavastu). Toh 1, ch. 17, Degé Kangyur vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 255.b–293.a; vol. 4 (’dul ba, nga), folios 1.a–302.a.
gos kyi gzhi (Cīvaravastu). Toh 1-7, Degé Kangyur vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 50.a–115.b.
rgya cher rol pa (Lalitavistara). Toh 95, Degé Kangyur vol. 46 (mdo sde, kha), folios 1.b–216.b. English translation in the Dharmachakra Translation Committee (2013).
’dul ba gzhung dam pa (Vinayottaragrantha). Toh 7a, Degé Kangyur vol. 12 (’dul ba, na), folios 92.b–302.a; vol. 13 (’dul ba, pa), folios 1.b–313.a.
’dul ba’i mdo (Vinayasūtra). Toh 4117, Degé Tengyur vol. 261 (’dul ba, wu) folios 1.a1–100.a7.
don rnam par nges pa chos kyi rnam grangs (Arthaviniścayadharmaparyāya). Toh 317, Degé Kangyur vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 170.b–188.a. English translation in Dharmachakra Translation Committee 2021.
gnas lam gyi gzhi (Śayanāsanavastu). Toh 1-15, Degé Kangyur vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 187.a–222.a.
bye brag tu rtogs par byed pa chen po (Mahāvyutpatti). Toh 4346, Degé Tengyur vol. 204 (sna tshogs, co), folios 1.b–131.a.
ma ga d+hA bzang mo’i rtogs pa brjod pa (Sumāgadhāvadāna). Toh 346, vol. 75 (mdo sde, aM), folios 291.b–298.a. English translation The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā 2024.
dmar ser can gyi gzhi (Pāṇḍulohitakavastu). Toh 1-11, Degé Kangyur vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 140.a–165.b.
rtsod pa’i gzhi (Adhikaraṇavastu). Toh 1-16, Degé Kangyur vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 222.a–255.b.
mdzangs blun zhes bya ba’i mdo (Damamūkasūtra). Toh 341, vol. 74 (mdo sde, a), folios 129.a–298.a.
gzhang ’brum rab tu zhi bar byed pa’i mdo (Arśapraśamanasūtra). Toh 621, Degé Kangyur vol. 91 (rgyud, ba), folios 61.a–61.b; Toh 1020, vol. 101 (gzungs, waM), folios 181.b–183.a.
yangs pa’i grong khyer du ’jug pa’i mdo chen po (Vaiśālīpraveśamahāsūtra). Toh 312, Degé Kangyur vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa) folios 157.b–161.b. English translation in the Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team (2020).
yongs su mya ngan las ’das pa chen po’i mdo. Toh 119, Degé Kangyur vol. 52 (mdo sde, nya), folios 1.b–343.a; vol. 53 (mdo sde, ta), folios 1.b–339.a.
rab tu ’byung ba’ gzhi (Pravrjyāvastu). Toh 1, chap. 1. Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 1.a–131.a. English translation in Miller (2018).
rig sngags kyi rgyal mo rma bya chen mo (Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñi). Toh 559, Degé Kangyur, vol. 90 (rgyud ’bum, pha), folios 87.b–117.a. English translation in Dharmachakra Translation Committee 2023.
las brgya pa (Karmaśataka). Toh 340, Degé Kangyur vol. 73 (mdo sde, ha), folios 1.b–309.a; vol. 74 (mdo sde, a), folios 1.b–128.b. English translation in Jamspal and Fischer 2020.
gsang sngags kyi rjes su ’brang ba chen mo’i sgrub thabs (Mahāmantrānusāriṇīsādhana). Toh 3254, Degé Tengyur vol. 76 (rgyud, bu), folio 15.b.
so sor thar pa’i mdo (Prātimokṣasūtra). Toh 2, Degé Kangyur vol. 5 (’dul ba, ca), folios 1.a–20.b.
Kalyāṇamitra. lung phran tshegs kyi rnam par bshad pa (Āgamakṣudrakavyākhyāna). Toh 4115, Degé Tengyur vol. 158 (’dul ba, dzu), folios 1.b–232.a.
Śamathadeva. chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi ’grel bshad nye bar mkho ba (Abhidharmakośaṭīkopāyikā). Toh 4094, Degé Tengyur vol. 146 (mngon pa, ja), folios 1.b–287.a; vol 147 (mngon pa, ngu), folios 1.b–95.a.
Vasubandhu. chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi bshad pa (Abhidharmakośabhāṣya). Toh 4090, Degé Tengyur vol. 140 (mngon pa, ku), folios 26.b–258.a; vol. 141 (mngon pa, khu), folios 1.b–95.a.
Vasubandhu. rnam par bshad pa’i rigs pa (Vyākhyāyukti). Toh 4061, Degé Tengyur vol. 136 (sems tsam, shi), folios 29.a–134.b.
Yaśomitra. chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi ’grel bshad (Abhidharmakośaṭīkā). Toh 4092, Degé Tengyur vol. 142 (mngon pa, gu), folios 1.b–330.a; vol. 143 (mngon pa, ngu), folios 1.b–333.a.
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AA Aṅguttaranikāya-Aṭṭhakathā. Edited by Walleser and Kopp (1924–56).
AG Anavataptagāthā.
AKBh Abhidharmakośabhāṣya. Edited by Pradhan = Pradhan 1967.
AKUp Abhidharmakośopāyikā-ṭīkā. (Section numbers are based on Honjō 1984 and 2014.)
AN Aṅguttaranikāya = Morris et al. 1885–1961.
AdhvG Adhikaraṇavastu. Edited by Gnoli (1978).
Ap Apadāna = Lilley 2000.
BAK Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā = Chandra Das and Vidyābhūshana 1940.
BHSD Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. Vol. II Dictionary = Edgerton 1953.
Bhv Bhaiṣajyavastu.
BhvY Bhaiṣajyavastu. Japanese translation by Yao = Yao 2013a.
CPD The Critical Pāli Dictionary = Trenckner et al. 1924–92.
Ch. Chinese translation.
ChDas Tibetan English Dictionary = Das 1902.
Crv Carmavastu.
Cīv Cīvaravastu.
D Degé xylograph (scanned and published by the Buddhist Digital Resource Center).
DA Dīghanikāya-Aṭṭhakathā = Rhys Davids et al. 1968–71.
DN Dīghanikāya = Rhys Davids and Carpenter 1890–1911.
DPPN Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names = Malalasekera 1937.
DhpA Dhammapadatthakathā = Norman 1906.
Divy Divyāvadāna = Cowell and Neil [1886] 1987.
DĀ Dīrghāgama.
DĀ 35 Ambāṣṭhasūtra. Edited by Melzer (2010a).
DĀc Dīrghāgama. Chinese translation (Taishō no. 1 Chang ahan jing 長阿含經).
EĀc Ekottarikāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 125 Zengyi ahan jing 増壹阿含經).
GBhv The Bhaiṣajyavastu in the Gilgit manuscript = GMNAI i, 46–134.
GM Gilgit manuscripts of the Vinayavastu edited by Dutt = Dutt 1942–50 (page numbers of Bhv, which is in part i, is referred to just with “GM,” and those of other vastus with “GM ii, iii, and iv,” with part numbers).
GMNAI i Gilgit Manuscripts in the National Archives of India: Facsimile Edition vol. 1, Vinaya Texts = Clarke 2014.
H Hemis manuscript.
J Jātaka = Fausbøll [1877–96] 1962–64.
Jäschke Tibetan English Dictionary = Jäschke 1881.
KA Kaṭhināvadāna = Degener 1990.
Kṣv Kṣudrakavastu.
MN Majjhimanikāya = Trenckner et al. [1888–1925] 1974–79.
MPS Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra = Waldschmidt 1950–51.
MSA Mahāsudarśanāvadāna in the Gilgit manuscripts.
MSV Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya.
MW A Sanskrit-English Dictionary = Monier-Williams 1899.
MdhA Māndhātāvadāna in the Gilgit manuscripts.
Merv-av Avadāna anthology from Merv = Karashima and Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya 2015.
Mma Mahāmantrānusāriṇī-sūtra = Skilling 1994–97, 608–22.
Mmvr Mahāmāyūrīvidyārajñī= Takubo 1972.
Mv Mahāvastu = Senart 1882–97.
Mvy Mahāvyutpatti = Sakaki 1916.
MĀc Madhyamāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 26 Zhong ahan jing 中阿含經).
N Narthang xylograph.
NBhv The newly identified Bhaiṣajyavastu fragments held in a private collection, Virginia, and the Schøyen Collection.
Negi Tibetan–Sanskrit Dictionary = Negi 1993–2005.
P Peking xylograph.
PLv Pāṇḍulohitakavastu.
PTSD PTS’s Pāli–English Dictionary = Rhys Davids and Stede 1921–25.
Ph phug brag manuscript.
Prjv Pravrajyāvastu. Translation in Miller 2018.
PrjvVW Pravrajyāvastu edited by Vogel and Wille. I: Vogel and Wille 1984; II: 1992; III: 1996; IV: 2002 (all these files are now available in one pdf file online, Vogel and Wille 2014).
R Ragya printed Kangyur.
S Stok Palace Manuscript.
SHT Sanskrithandschriften aus den Turfanfunden.
SN Saṃyuttanikāya = Feer [1884–98] 1975–2006.
SWTF Sanskrit-Wörterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden = Waldschmidt et al. 1973–2018.
Sbhv Saṅghabhedavastu.
SbhvG Saṅghabhedavastu. edited by Gnoli (1977–78).
Sh Shey Palace manuscript.
Skt. Sanskrit.
Sn Suttanipāta = Andersen and Smith [1913] 1984.
Sumav Sumāgadhāvadāna = Iwamoto 1979.
SĀc Saṃyuktāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 99 Za ahan jing 雜阿含經).
SĀc2 Saṃyuktāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 100 Bieyi za ahan jing 別譯雜阿含經).
SĀc3 Saṃyuktāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 101 Za ahan jing 雜阿含經).
T Tokyo manuscript.
Taishō Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經. 100 vols. Tokyo: Taishō Issaikyō Kankōkai 大正一切經刊行會, 1924–34.
TheraG Theragāthā = Oldenberg and Pischel 1883.
Tib. Tibetan translation.
U Urga printed Kangyur .
Ud Udāna = Steinthal 1982.
Ug Uttaragrantha.
Uv Udānavarga = Bernhard 1965–68, i.
UvTib Udānavarga in Tibetan translation = Champa Thupten Zongtse 1990.
VS Vinayasūtra transliterated by Study Group of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Tibetan dBu med Script.
Vin Vinayapiṭaka in Pāli = Oldenberg [1879–83] 1982–1997.
Viś I The first story of Viśvantara in the Bhv.
Viś II The second story of Viśvantara in the Bhv.
Viś III The story of Viśvantara in the Sbhv.
Viś IV Viśvantarāvadāna in the Gilgit manuscripts.
Vvbh Vinayavibhaṅga.
ms Manuscript.
Śav Śayanāsanavastu.
ŚavG Śayanāsanavastu. Edited by Gnoli (1978).
