The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā opens at Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, in Śrāvastī, where the Buddha is staying. At the time, Anāthapiṇḍada’s daughter Sumāgadhā is married off to Vṛṣabhadatta, the son of a nirgrantha merchant in the distant city of Puṇḍravardhana. After arriving at the home of her in-laws, Sumāgadhā is repulsed and disheartened on encountering the nirgrantha mendicants. When her mother-in-law asks why she seems despondent, Sumāgadhā tells her about the Buddha. At her mother-in-law’s request, she invites the Buddha and the saṅgha of monks for a meal, and she does so by preparing an offering and calling out from the rooftop. When Ānanda inquires about this invitation, the Buddha announces that all monks with miraculous powers must take a tally stick and travel to Puṇḍravardhana. As the śrāvakas arrive with their miraculous displays, Sumāgadhā relates a brief story about each of them. Finally, the Buddha arrives and converts the people of Puṇḍravardhana with his own miraculous display. When the monks ask how Sumāgadhā’s marriage has benefited so many beings, the Buddha relates the story of her past life as the princess Kāñcanamālā during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa and, in turn, Kāñcanamālā’s past life as the virtuous wife of a farmer, explaining that she has performed buddha activity in the past and continues to do so. This sūtra also contains the popular account of the ten dreams of King Kṛkin, which are interpreted by the Buddha as foretelling the future decline of the Dharma.
A draft of the translation was made from the Tibetan by Venerable Khenpo Kalsang Gyaltsen and Chodrungma Kunga Chodron in 2010 at Tsechen Kunchab Ling in Walden, NY. This draft was then revised and edited by Laura Goetz, who checked the Tibetan against the Sanskrit editions and also wrote the introduction and annotations.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. David Fiordalis edited the translation and the introduction, and Ven. Konchog Norbu copyedited the text. Martina Cotter was in charge of the digital publication process.
The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā opens at Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, in Śrāvastī, where the Buddha is staying. At the time, Anāthapiṇḍada’s daughter Sumāgadhā is married off to Vṛṣabhadatta, the son a merchant who follows the nirgrantha or Jain tradition, in the distant city of Puṇḍravardhana. After arriving at the home of her in-laws, Sumāgadhā is disheartened on encountering the nirgrantha mendicants. When her mother-in-law asks why she seems despondent, Sumāgadhā tells her about the Buddha. At her mother-in-law’s request, she invites the Buddha and the saṅgha of monks for a meal, and she does so by preparing an offering and calling out from the rooftop. When Ānanda inquires about this invitation, the Buddha announces that all monks with miraculous powers must take a tally stick and travel to Puṇḍravardhana. As the śrāvakas arrive on different extraordinary vehicles that they have created with their miraculous powers, Sumāgadhā relates a brief story about each of them, with these stories alluding to other tales about the śrāvakas.
Finally, the Buddha arrives in the company of a retinue of gods and gandharvas and converts the people of Puṇḍravardhana with his own miraculous display. When the monks ask how it is that Sumāgadhā’s marriage has benefited so many beings, the Buddha relates the story of her past life as the princess Kāñcanamālā during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa and, in turn, Kāñcanamālā’s past life as the virtuous wife of a farmer, explaining that she has performed buddha activity in the past and continues to do so. This sūtra also contains the popular account of the ten dreams of King Kṛkin, which are interpreted by the Buddha as foretelling the future decline of the Dharma.
The story of Sumāgadhā and the subsequent conversion of the nirgranthas has been a popular narrative in the Buddhist world, going back to its apparent circulation in ancient Gandhāra as early as the second century, if not earlier.1 It has been told and retold many times, also appearing, for example, in Kṣemendra’s (ca. 990–ca. 1070 ᴄᴇ) Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā, a poetic retelling of a number of Buddhist avadānas and jātaka stories. The account of King Kṛkin’s ten dreams, too, has also circulated independently of this sūtra, appearing in various formulations in a variety of texts, and even finding its way into Persian, Arabic, and Slavic literature.2 Gö Lotsāwa Shönnu Pal (’gos lo tsA ba gzhon nu dpal, 1392–1481), in his Blue Annals (deb ther sngon po), mentions the ten dreams at the beginning of his account of the division of the Buddhist community into eighteen schools after the death of the Buddha Śākyamuni, during the reign of King Aśoka. In particular, Gö Lotsāwa highlights the passage in The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā concerning the dream of the cloth remaining untorn though being pulled by eighteen men, explaining that although the teaching of the Buddha was divided, each of the eighteen schools provided a viable path to liberation.3 According to Noriyuki Kudo, King Kṛkin’s story was likely added to the story of Sumāgadhā at the end of the second century, shortly after the story of Sumāgadhā and the conversion of the non-Buddhists had spread in Gandhāra.4
Tracing the origins of this sūtra is a complex matter and has been studied in painstaking detail. It will have to suffice here to offer a condensed summary of our understanding of the history of the text to date as it relates to the Tibetan translation found in the Kangyur. In short, there are several fragmentary Sanskrit manuscripts from Gilgit that predate the Tibetan translation, probably by three or four centuries, and present a text that appears quite similar to the hypothetical manuscript used for the Tibetan translation. Other Sanskrit manuscripts from Nepal postdate the Tibetan translation and include additional material possibly culled from other sources such as the Divyāvadāna.
The sūtra was first studied by Tsurumatsu Tokiwai in a dissertation at the University of Strasburg published in 1918.5 This was followed in 1968 by Yukata Iwamoto’s edition of several Sanskrit manuscripts from Nepal dated to the seventeenth century, which he compared with a thirteenth-century “Calcutta” manuscript.6 This publication also included English translations of four Chinese versions. In 1993, Markus Görtz completed an (unpublished) MA thesis containing a new edition of the Sanskrit,7 which was not accessible to us.
More recently, in 2011, a new color facsimile of the Gilgit Manuscripts discovered in 1931 was published, allowing for the identification of three Sanskrit fragments of The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā among them. Kudo estimates these manuscripts to date to the sixth or seventh century at the latest.8 With three manuscripts (A, B, and C) of the Delhi collection, and fragments from the Srinagar collection, Kudo was able to reconstruct in almost its entirety a Sanskrit source that appears to be similar to that which would have been used for the Tibetan translation.
According to Kudo’s account, the story of Sumāgadhā and the conversion of the non-Buddhists circulated in the Gandhāra region in the second century
In Pali literature, too, particularly in the Pali commentary on the Dhammapada, we find the story of Cullā Subhaddā, the virtuous daughter of Anāthapiṇḍika, which shares several features of the story found in the Sanskrit and Tibetan versions of The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā.11 The story of Visākhā from the same commentary also narrates a story about Subhaddā,12 but this version lacks the elements found in the Sanskrit versions of the story. Iwamoto also notes a parallel version in the Manorathapūraṇī, Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the Aṅguttara Nikāya.13
Several versions of the sūtra are also found in the Chinese canon: San mo jie jing 三摩竭經 (Taishō 129), translated by Zhu Lü-yan in 230
There is also a version of The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā found in the Mongolian Kangyur, titled Sayin magada-yin domuγ-i ögülegči kemekü.20
According to the colophon in the Tibetan Kangyur, the Tibetan translation of the sūtra was produced by Dharmaśrībhadra and Tsültrim Yönten (tshul khrims yon tan) and later corrected by Rinchen Sangpo (rin chen bzang po, 958–1055). Given that Dharmaśrībhadra is also said to have lived sometime during the late tenth to the mid-eleventh century, one may tentatively date the translation to the early eleventh century.21 In support of this dating is the fact that the sūtra is not listed in the Denkarma (ldan/lhan dkar ma) or Phangthangma (’phang thang ma) imperial catalogs from the ninth century.
Since there is no single complete Sanskrit source that corresponds precisely to the Tibetan translation—at least one that is not based on reconstruction—we have translated the sūtra based primarily on the Degé edition of the Tibetan Kangyur. We have, however, consulted the Sanskrit as edited by Kudo from the Gilgit manuscripts and the edition by Iwamoto reconstructed from the later manuscripts. Through this process we found that the Tibetan aligns quite closely but by no means perfectly with what is found in the Gilgit manuscripts.22
[F.291.b]Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The blessed Buddha was dwelling in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park.
At that time, a daughter of Anāthapiṇḍada known as Sumāgadhā, who was faithful, good-natured, virtuous in her thoughts, and engaged in benefiting herself and others, was dwelling in Śrāvastī.
Meanwhile, in a city known as Puṇḍravardhana, there lived another merchant, whose son was known as Vṛṣabhadatta. By associating with the heterodox non-Buddhists, he had come to believe in the nirgranthas.23 Whenever the Blessed One performed miraculous displays, the non-Buddhists would remain in the outlying districts—some in the city called Bhadrika,24 some in the area known as Mudgirika,25 and some in the city known as Puṇḍravardhana.
At that time, Vṛṣabhadatta had not yet established a household. Concerning that, the nirgranthas said, “There is a daughter of Anāthapiṇḍada called Sumāgadhā, who is beautiful, pleasing to behold, and graceful, the most beautiful woman in the land.”26
As soon as he heard that, Vṛṣabhadatta assumed the guise of a nirgrantha mendicant and traveled to Śrāvastī. He entered the home of the householder Anāthapiṇḍada to collect alms, and there he saw the girl. He was enamored the moment he saw her, and when he received the alms, he took them in his hat.27 The girl saw his improper behavior and laughingly said, “This one is absentmindedly accepting alms!”
Vṛṣabhadatta was ashamed and returned to the city of Puṇḍravardhana. There he spoke to his father, who accepted the girl.
Anāthapiṇḍada[F.292.a] asked the Blessed One about this, and the Blessed One replied, “Actually, if Sumāgadhā goes to Puṇḍravardhana, she will perform the activity of renunciants and the activity of a buddha.”
So the householder Anāthapiṇḍada informed her relatives and she was betrothed and conveyed to the city of Puṇḍravardhana.
Shortly thereafter, when the nirgranthas were eating at home, Sumāgadhā’s mother-in-law said, “Today, the venerable ones will come to our home for an offering of food. Come and see the venerable ones.”
On hearing this Sumāgadhā was happy, pleased, gladdened, and cheered. Thinking, “Surely it is the reverend Śāriputra, Mahāmaudgalyāyana, and the other great śrāvakas who have come!” she was greatly pleased and went without hesitation.
But as soon as she saw the nirgranthas, who were like naked wild buffalo, with plucked hair like pigeon squabs, Sumāgadhā was embarrassed and averted her face. Her mother-in-law asked, “Daughter, why are you displeased?”
She replied, “If ones such as these are objects of veneration, who would not be considered a venerable one?”
Her mother-in-law asked her, “Do you have teachers who are superior to these?”
The girl replied, “In my father’s monastery, Prince Jeta’s Grove, there is a teacher known as the Buddha. He is the object of veneration of the entire animate and inanimate world.”
“What is your teacher like?” she asked.
The girl replied:
Upon hearing this, her mother-in-law was overjoyed, and she asked, “Daughter, can you show us that Blessed One tomorrow?”
Sumāgadhā replied, “Prepare offerings of food,[F.292.b] and tomorrow I will invite the Blessed One.”
Sometime later they said, “The offerings of food have been prepared, so you should invite the Blessed One tomorrow.”
Then Sumāgadhā climbed to the very top of the house. She folded her hands and paid homage in the direction of the Blessed One, recalled the good qualities of the Blessed One, and strewed flowers and made offerings29 of incense. In order to invite the Blessed One, she sprinkled water from a golden vase.30
Then she spoke these piteous words: “O Blessed One possessed of great compassion, like a wild animal I have come to this frontier, separated from the Three Jewels. Please care for me, and with your saṅgha of monks please come to this place!”
And she spoke these words:
Just then the flowers, incense, and water from the golden vase rose into the sky, and at that moment the Blessed One arose from his deep absorption and taught the Dharma to the fourfold assembly. The water from the golden vase came to rest before the Blessed One like a staff of beryl, the flowers rested like a pinnacled temple in the sky above the Blessed One, and the fragrant incense came to rest like heaps of clouds.
Seeing this, the venerable Ānanda inquired of the Blessed One, “Blessed One, from whence does this invitation come?”
The Blessed One replied, “Ānanda, it came 163 yojanas from the city of Puṇḍravardhana. Ānanda, as that city is held by non-Buddhists, we must go there with an extraordinary display of miraculous power.[F.293.a] Therefore, distribute the tally sticks to the monks.”
Right away, the venerable Ānanda distributed the tally sticks, starting with the most senior monk. He said, “Tomorrow we will go to the city of Puṇḍravardhana. As that city is completely held by non-Buddhists, those among you who have attained miraculous power must take these tally sticks.” Then the process of taking the tally sticks began, starting with the most senior monk.
Among them was the elder known as Pūrṇa.31 Although he had not attained miraculous power, he reached out his hand to take a tally stick. The venerable Ānanda said to him, “Elder, we are not going to the home of Anāthapiṇḍada, but we must travel to a place 163 yojanas from here known as Puṇḍravardhana.”
The elder thought, “I have abandoned the defilements to which I had been habituated since beginningless time, so what could be difficult about such miraculous power, which is common even to non-Buddhists? I will not produce it.” Due to that thought, however, at that very moment the miraculous power was produced. As the second tally stick had not yet been distributed, the elder reached out his hand like an elephant’s trunk and took the tally stick.
Meanwhile, Venerable Ānanda, sitting at the head of the elders, said, “Those who have attained miraculous power must go to the city of Puṇḍravardhana.”
Then on the second day, at daybreak, the monks prepared by perfecting their displays of miraculous power. The Four Great Kings also set out in the direction of Śrāvastī. As they did so, the one known as Ājñātakauṇḍinya, mounted on a horse chariot, displayed a flash of lightning and brought down a gentle rain. Thus demonstrating his miraculous power, he made his entrance.
Sumāgadhā’s master32 saw this and asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this your teacher?”
She replied,[F.293.b] “This one is known as Ājñātakauṇḍinya. He is arriving first since he was the first to realize that there is no self after the Blessed One first turned the wheel of Dharma.”33
Then the elder Mahākāśyapa made his entrance from the sky above, having magically created a great rocky mountain covered with hundreds of variegated trees and various forms of birds, lushly carpeted with a diversity of flowers, and beautified by manifold rivulets.
The master of the house saw that and asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this your teacher?”
She replied, “This one who now arrives is known as Mahākāśyapa. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the preachers for his abiding in ascetic practices. He gave up nine hundred ninety-nine pairs of oxen and abandoned, like spittle in the dust, Kapilabhadrā, the most beautiful woman in the land,34 and great wealth and much gold, and went forth and became a renunciant.”
Next, the venerable Śāriputra, having magically created a lion chariot, made his entrance in the sky above using his miraculous power.
The master of the house saw that and asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in a lion chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Śāriputra. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those endowed with wisdom. As soon as he entered his mother’s womb, he was victorious over all those who engage in of debate throughout the entire world. He who arrives in the lion chariot is the second teacher, the second supreme one, the Dharma chief who subsequently turns the wheel of Dharma.”
Right after that, the venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana, having magically created a king of elephants that was like the elephant Airāvaṇa, made his entrance in the sky above using his miraculous power.
The master of the house saw that and asked Sumāgadhā, “Is this one who arrives on an elephant that is like Airāvaṇa, the king of elephants, your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Mahāmaudgalyāyana. The Blessed One[F.294.a] pronounced him chief among those with miraculous power. With his miraculous power, he shook Vaijayanta, the mansion of Śakra, the lord of the gods, with his big toe, and he tamed the nāga kings Nanda and Upananda. It is he who arrives on an elephant chariot.”
Next, the venerable Aniruddha made his entrance from the sky using his miraculous power, having magically created a lotus the size of a chariot wheel and made entirely of gold, with a stem of beryl and a stamen of silver.
Seeing that, the master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this your teacher?”
She replied, “This one is the monk known as Aniruddha. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those possessed of the divine eye. He conducts himself such that by the power of his merit five hundred vessels filled with cooked food arrive at his door by merely thinking of them. At the slightest thought, robes, alms, food, bedding, medicines for illness, and all necessities arise. It is he who arrives on a lotus chariot.”
Then the venerable Pūrṇa35 made his entrance from the sky above, having magically created a garuḍa chariot.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is the one arriving on a garuḍa chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This one is the monk known as Pūrṇa. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the teachers of Dharma. It is he who arrives on a garuḍa chariot.”
Next, the venerable Aśvajit made his entrance in an extremely peaceful manner.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in such a tranquil manner, holding an alms bowl, your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Aśvajit. With his tranquil manner, he tamed a mad elephant. Seeing his tranquil manner, the noble Śāriputra saw the truth, went forth and became a renunciant in the teaching of the Blessed One, and, having become a renunciant, attained arhathood.[F.294.b] It is he who arrives in a tranquil manner.”
Then the venerable Upāli made his entrance from the sky above using his miraculous power, having magically created a forest of golden palm trees.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in a forest of golden palm trees your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Upāli. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the holders of the Vinaya. As many as five hundred Śākya renunciants placed a great heap of ornaments such as necklaces, bracelets, armlets, golden parasols, and garments in front of him. When he saw them, he felt a great revulsion. Understanding them all to be impermanent, he became a renunciant in the teaching of the Buddha, and, having become a renunciant, he realized the state of an arhat. It is he who arrives in a forest of golden palm trees.”
Next, the venerable Mahākātyāyanaputra made his entrance from the sky using his miraculous power, having magically created a pinnacled temple made of beryl.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives seated in a pinnacled temple made of beryl your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Mahākātyāyanaputra. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the Sautrāntika and Vaibhāṣika teachers. It is he who arrives seated in a pinnacled temple made of beryl.
Next, the venerable Kauṣṭhila made his entrance from the sky above using his miraculous power, having magically created a bull chariot.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives riding on a bull chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Kauṣṭhila. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who have attained analytical knowledge. It is he who arrives seated on a bull chariot.”
Then the venerable Pilindavatsa, by means of a swan chariot, made his entrance from the sky above using his miraculous power.[F.295.a]
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives riding a swan chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Pilindavatsa. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who abide in compassion. When he wished to cross the Ganges River, he commanded, ‘Stay, servant woman!’ As soon as he spoke those words, she remained like a mountain peak, not flowing at all. It is he who arrives on a swan chariot.”
Next, the venerable Koṭīviṃśakarṇa made his entrance on foot, walking in a mountain forest.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives walking in a forest that is filled with hundreds of trees your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Karṇika. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who exert themselves in diligence. As soon as he was born, he possessed a worth of two hundred million chaffed grains,36 and from the soles of his feet sprouted golden hair four finger-breadths in length. He is the one on whom five hundred karṣāpaṇa coins were spent for his first cooked meal, and when the Blessed One was ill and Mahāmaudgalyāyana brought it as a food offering for him, its aroma filled the whole of the Veṇuvana, so that King Bimbisāra smelled it and was greatly amazed. He is the one who, merely setting down his two feet, caused this earth to quake. He is the one, after he became a renunciant and stepped onto the meditation walkway, from whose two feet blood37 flowed and was drunk by crows. It is he who arrives on foot.”
Then the venerable Rāhula made his entrance, having magically created the appearance of a universal monarch.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in the image of a universal monarch your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the son of the Blessed One. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who hold the precepts. He gloriously demonstrates what was relinquished by his father, and in the appearance of a universal monarch he is[F.295.b] possessed of the seven treasures and surrounded by thousands of youths. He is the one who arrives like the moon surrounded by a host of planets, constellations, and stars; like a lord of humans who has entered the royal road; like an ocean filled by the cascading of a thousand rivers; like a great protector of beings who dispels fear, illness, and misery; like a lion among beasts; like a garuḍa among birds; like the all-clearing sun; and like a universal monarch ruling the four continents. It is he who arrives like the thousand-eyed protector of the Dharma in the assembly hall of Sudharma.”38
Likewise, the others made their entrances demonstrating a variety of miraculous displays—some displaying a blaze of fire, some a shower of rain. Some rose up from the earth, some rested on the foundation of the sky, and some created seats. Behold the might of those possessing miraculous power!39 This is how the disciples of the Blessed One went.
Then the Blessed One emitted a light by which all of Jambudvīpa was filled with light the color of refined gold. By sending forth a great mass of light from Śrāvastī all the way to Puṇḍravardhana, nowhere was there anything that could not be seen by the eyes; thus was there total visibility. The Blessed One too proceeded through the sky, with Vajrapāṇi following40 behind him, the residents of Śuddhāvāsa above, the gods of the desire realm below, Śakra on the left, and Brahmā on the right.
Likewise, gandharvas such as Pañcaśikha, Supriya, and Eye Gift traveled in great numbers, playing pleasant, diverse melodies on lutes, flutes, paṇava drums,41 clay drums, and the like, and strewing flowers, incense, perfumes, and garlands.
Meanwhile, the Blessed One established seventy-seven thousand beings in the truth for the first time and, having done so, he arrived at the city of Puṇḍravardhana. The city had eighteen gates, at which the Blessed One emanated eighteen buddhas,[F.296.a] a buddha appearing at each of the gates. Then the Blessed One arrived at Sumāgadhā’s house.
Since they could not see the blessed Buddha, the great crowd of people became angry and started to break down the house. So, the Blessed One used his intention to transform the entire city into crystal, so that the body of the Buddha could be seen seated within each and every house.
Sumāgadhā and many hundreds of thousands of other beings in Puṇḍravardhana then offered flowers, perfumes, garlands, and incense to the Blessed One. The Blessed One taught the Dharma to Sumāgadhā and the rest of the great gathering of people in such a way that those who heard it—Sumāgadhā and the many hundreds and thousands of other beings—obtained the direct vision of the truth. The entire assembly became inclined toward the Buddha, disposed to the Dharma, and favorable toward the Saṅgha.
Yet, the monks were perplexed, and to ease all their uncertainty, they addressed the Blessed One: “Blessed One, it is wondrous how by Sumāgadhā’s going to the other side, many hundreds of thousands of beings have become inclined toward the higher realms and toward liberation, and that by this she has accomplished buddha activity.”
The Blessed One replied, “Listen to how she accomplished buddha activity, not only at present but in the past, too. Monks, in ancient times, long ago, when the lifespan of humans was twenty thousand years, the perfectly complete buddha known as Kāśyapa, one endowed with perfect knowledge and conduct, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, an unsurpassed charioteer who tames beings, a teacher of gods and humans, a blessed buddha, emerged in the world. At that time, a king known as Kṛkin ruled the city of Vārāṇasī. His daughter was born with a golden garland, and so they named her Kāñcanamālā.
“Later, when the girl had grown up, she went together with a retinue of young ladies, in all five hundred young girls of the same age,[F.296.b] to pay her respects to the perfectly complete Buddha Kāśyapa. Because they had faith in him, for as long as they lived they continued to serve that perfectly complete buddha, the blessed Kāśyapa, providing him with robes, alms, food, bedding, medicines for curing illness, and other necessities.
“During that time, one night, King Kṛkin dreamed ten dreams. As he recalled, ‘I dreamed of a king of elephants who, emerging from a window, was caught by its thin tail; I dreamed of hastening to a well when no longer thirsty; I saw the sale of a measure of pearls for a measure of flour; I saw sandalwood and ordinary wood being given equal value; I saw thieves stealing sumptuous fruits from a garden; I saw an elephant calf scaring a rutting elephant; I saw a dirty monkey smearing others with filth; I saw a monkey who was consecrated as king; I saw a piece of cloth not being torn though it was pulled42 by eighteen men; and I saw a great crowd of people assembled together who passed the time43 quarreling, arguing, fighting, and criticizing one another.’
“Then the king awoke, distraught with fear and apprehension, thinking, ‘Has my life been threatened, or am I to fall from power?’ So he gathered some brahmins who were learned in the interpretation of dream signs, and he described his dreams to them.
“However, because the brahmins despised Kāñcanamālā, they said, ‘Your Majesty, you must make a sacrificial offering to the fire with the heart of the one who is most dear to you of all.’
“In despair, the king thought, ‘The one who is to me the sweetest of all is my Kāñcanamālā!’
“Kāñcanamālā heard about this, and since she was learned, she approached the king. ‘Your Majesty, when the sun is shining, what need is there for the flame of a lamp? The perfectly complete Buddha, the blessed Kāśyapa, is dwelling at the Ṛṣivadana in Deer Park—you should go there and ask him. That blessed one will give you an accurate prophecy, to which you should adhere.’
“Then King Kṛkin sounded a great gong and announced, ‘Now I will go to the city of Vārāṇasī, to the presence of that blessed one,’ and together with Kāñcanamālā and a retinue of many hundreds of thousands, he went to where the Blessed One was. There, they bowed their heads to the feet of the Blessed One[F.297.a] and sat before the Blessed One in order to listen to the Dharma.
“After some time, King Kṛkin rose from his seat and approached the Blessed One. He bowed with his hands folded and told the Blessed One, ‘O Blessed One, in a single night I witnessed ten dreams. An elephant, emerging from a window, was caught by its tail…’ and so forth as before.44 ‘Please, Blessed One, tell me the portent of these dreams.’
“The Blessed One replied, ‘Be not afraid, Great King. Your kingdom will not decline, and your life is not in danger. On the contrary, Great King, in the future, when the lifespan of humans is one hundred years, a perfectly complete buddha known as Śākyamuni will appear, and in the latter part of that time there will emerge śrāvakas whose bodies are unrestrained, whose minds are unrestrained, whose moral discipline is unrestrained, and whose wisdom is unrestrained. They will abandon their kin and become renunciants, yet by engaging the notion of the household while in monasteries, they will still be attached. The elephant being caught by its tail when emerging from a window is a premonition of that.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of hastening to a well when no longer thirsty is a premonition that although the Dharma will be taught to those who assemble together in a monastery, they will not desire to listen, nor will they keep those teachings in mind.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of the sale of a measure of pearls for a measure of flour is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas who will correctly teach the faculties, powers, and precious branches of awakening merely for the sake of food.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of sandalwood and ordinary wood being given equal value is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas who, apprehending the words of non-Buddhists, will equate them with the words of the Buddha.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of thieves stealing sumptuous fruits from a garden[F.297.b] is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas whose bodies are unrestrained, whose minds are unrestrained, whose moral discipline is unrestrained, and whose wisdom is unrestrained, and that they will take the best flowers and fruits of the saṅgha and give them to householders for the purpose of their livelihood.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of an elephant calf scaring a rutting elephant is a premonition that śrāvakas who have faulty moral discipline and are possessed of sinful propensities will overpower monks who possess moral discipline and virtuous propensities.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a dirty monkey smearing others with filth is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas who have faulty moral discipline and are possessed of sinful propensities and that they will deprecate those who possess moral discipline.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a monkey who was consecrated as king is a premonition that at that time deluded ones will be consecrated as kings.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a piece of cloth not being torn though it was pulled45 by eighteen men is a premonition that although the teaching on reality will be split into eighteen factions, the cloth of liberation cannot be torn.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a great crowd of people assembled together quarreling, arguing, fighting, and criticizing one another other is a premonition that the teaching on reality will fade away through dispute.
“ ‘Great King, such unbearable things will come to pass in the future.’
“And with these words, King Kṛkin and Kāñcanamālā generated roots of virtue toward the perfectly and completely awakened Buddha Kāśyapa that made them conducive to liberation.
“Monks, what do you think? The one known at that time as Kāñcanamālā was this Sumāgadhā herself. At that time she[F.298.a] performed buddha activity, and likewise she has come here and once again performed buddha activity.”
Then the monks, with doubts arising, inquired of the blessed Buddha, “Reverend One, due to what former action was Kāñcanamālā born tied with a golden garland?”
The Blessed One replied, “Monks, it was due to this action: Long ago, the wife of some farmer or other made garlands of variously colored flowers and tied them up at the caitya of a pratyekabuddha. By the ripening of that action, she was born tied with a golden garland. Therefore, monks, the ripening of purely dark actions is purely dark, the ripening of those that are purely white is purely white, and the ripening of those that are mixed is mixed. Therefore, monks, you should abandon purely dark and mixed actions and exert yourselves in purely white actions. Monks, you should train in this way.”
The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā opens at Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, in Śrāvastī, where the Buddha is staying. At the time, Anāthapiṇḍada’s daughter Sumāgadhā is married off to Vṛṣabhadatta, the son of a nirgrantha merchant in the distant city of Puṇḍravardhana. After arriving at the home of her in-laws, Sumāgadhā is repulsed and disheartened on encountering the nirgrantha mendicants. When her mother-in-law asks why she seems despondent, Sumāgadhā tells her about the Buddha. At her mother-in-law’s request, she invites the Buddha and the saṅgha of monks for a meal, and she does so by preparing an offering and calling out from the rooftop. When Ānanda inquires about this invitation, the Buddha announces that all monks with miraculous powers must take a tally stick and travel to Puṇḍravardhana. As the śrāvakas arrive with their miraculous displays, Sumāgadhā relates a brief story about each of them. Finally, the Buddha arrives and converts the people of Puṇḍravardhana with his own miraculous display. When the monks ask how Sumāgadhā’s marriage has benefited so many beings, the Buddha relates the story of her past life as the princess Kāñcanamālā during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa and, in turn, Kāñcanamālā’s past life as the virtuous wife of a farmer, explaining that she has performed buddha activity in the past and continues to do so. This sūtra also contains the popular account of the ten dreams of King Kṛkin, which are interpreted by the Buddha as foretelling the future decline of the Dharma.
A draft of the translation was made from the Tibetan by Venerable Khenpo Kalsang Gyaltsen and Chodrungma Kunga Chodron in 2010 at Tsechen Kunchab Ling in Walden, NY. This draft was then revised and edited by Laura Goetz, who checked the Tibetan against the Sanskrit editions and also wrote the introduction and annotations.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. David Fiordalis edited the translation and the introduction, and Ven. Konchog Norbu copyedited the text. Martina Cotter was in charge of the digital publication process.
The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā opens at Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, in Śrāvastī, where the Buddha is staying. At the time, Anāthapiṇḍada’s daughter Sumāgadhā is married off to Vṛṣabhadatta, the son a merchant who follows the nirgrantha or Jain tradition, in the distant city of Puṇḍravardhana. After arriving at the home of her in-laws, Sumāgadhā is disheartened on encountering the nirgrantha mendicants. When her mother-in-law asks why she seems despondent, Sumāgadhā tells her about the Buddha. At her mother-in-law’s request, she invites the Buddha and the saṅgha of monks for a meal, and she does so by preparing an offering and calling out from the rooftop. When Ānanda inquires about this invitation, the Buddha announces that all monks with miraculous powers must take a tally stick and travel to Puṇḍravardhana. As the śrāvakas arrive on different extraordinary vehicles that they have created with their miraculous powers, Sumāgadhā relates a brief story about each of them, with these stories alluding to other tales about the śrāvakas.
Finally, the Buddha arrives in the company of a retinue of gods and gandharvas and converts the people of Puṇḍravardhana with his own miraculous display. When the monks ask how it is that Sumāgadhā’s marriage has benefited so many beings, the Buddha relates the story of her past life as the princess Kāñcanamālā during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa and, in turn, Kāñcanamālā’s past life as the virtuous wife of a farmer, explaining that she has performed buddha activity in the past and continues to do so. This sūtra also contains the popular account of the ten dreams of King Kṛkin, which are interpreted by the Buddha as foretelling the future decline of the Dharma.
The story of Sumāgadhā and the subsequent conversion of the nirgranthas has been a popular narrative in the Buddhist world, going back to its apparent circulation in ancient Gandhāra as early as the second century, if not earlier.1 It has been told and retold many times, also appearing, for example, in Kṣemendra’s (ca. 990–ca. 1070 ᴄᴇ) Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā, a poetic retelling of a number of Buddhist avadānas and jātaka stories. The account of King Kṛkin’s ten dreams, too, has also circulated independently of this sūtra, appearing in various formulations in a variety of texts, and even finding its way into Persian, Arabic, and Slavic literature.2 Gö Lotsāwa Shönnu Pal (’gos lo tsA ba gzhon nu dpal, 1392–1481), in his Blue Annals (deb ther sngon po), mentions the ten dreams at the beginning of his account of the division of the Buddhist community into eighteen schools after the death of the Buddha Śākyamuni, during the reign of King Aśoka. In particular, Gö Lotsāwa highlights the passage in The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā concerning the dream of the cloth remaining untorn though being pulled by eighteen men, explaining that although the teaching of the Buddha was divided, each of the eighteen schools provided a viable path to liberation.3 According to Noriyuki Kudo, King Kṛkin’s story was likely added to the story of Sumāgadhā at the end of the second century, shortly after the story of Sumāgadhā and the conversion of the non-Buddhists had spread in Gandhāra.4
Tracing the origins of this sūtra is a complex matter and has been studied in painstaking detail. It will have to suffice here to offer a condensed summary of our understanding of the history of the text to date as it relates to the Tibetan translation found in the Kangyur. In short, there are several fragmentary Sanskrit manuscripts from Gilgit that predate the Tibetan translation, probably by three or four centuries, and present a text that appears quite similar to the hypothetical manuscript used for the Tibetan translation. Other Sanskrit manuscripts from Nepal postdate the Tibetan translation and include additional material possibly culled from other sources such as the Divyāvadāna.
The sūtra was first studied by Tsurumatsu Tokiwai in a dissertation at the University of Strasburg published in 1918.5 This was followed in 1968 by Yukata Iwamoto’s edition of several Sanskrit manuscripts from Nepal dated to the seventeenth century, which he compared with a thirteenth-century “Calcutta” manuscript.6 This publication also included English translations of four Chinese versions. In 1993, Markus Görtz completed an (unpublished) MA thesis containing a new edition of the Sanskrit,7 which was not accessible to us.
More recently, in 2011, a new color facsimile of the Gilgit Manuscripts discovered in 1931 was published, allowing for the identification of three Sanskrit fragments of The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā among them. Kudo estimates these manuscripts to date to the sixth or seventh century at the latest.8 With three manuscripts (A, B, and C) of the Delhi collection, and fragments from the Srinagar collection, Kudo was able to reconstruct in almost its entirety a Sanskrit source that appears to be similar to that which would have been used for the Tibetan translation.
According to Kudo’s account, the story of Sumāgadhā and the conversion of the non-Buddhists circulated in the Gandhāra region in the second century
In Pali literature, too, particularly in the Pali commentary on the Dhammapada, we find the story of Cullā Subhaddā, the virtuous daughter of Anāthapiṇḍika, which shares several features of the story found in the Sanskrit and Tibetan versions of The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā.11 The story of Visākhā from the same commentary also narrates a story about Subhaddā,12 but this version lacks the elements found in the Sanskrit versions of the story. Iwamoto also notes a parallel version in the Manorathapūraṇī, Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the Aṅguttara Nikāya.13
Several versions of the sūtra are also found in the Chinese canon: San mo jie jing 三摩竭經 (Taishō 129), translated by Zhu Lü-yan in 230
There is also a version of The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā found in the Mongolian Kangyur, titled Sayin magada-yin domuγ-i ögülegči kemekü.20
According to the colophon in the Tibetan Kangyur, the Tibetan translation of the sūtra was produced by Dharmaśrībhadra and Tsültrim Yönten (tshul khrims yon tan) and later corrected by Rinchen Sangpo (rin chen bzang po, 958–1055). Given that Dharmaśrībhadra is also said to have lived sometime during the late tenth to the mid-eleventh century, one may tentatively date the translation to the early eleventh century.21 In support of this dating is the fact that the sūtra is not listed in the Denkarma (ldan/lhan dkar ma) or Phangthangma (’phang thang ma) imperial catalogs from the ninth century.
Since there is no single complete Sanskrit source that corresponds precisely to the Tibetan translation—at least one that is not based on reconstruction—we have translated the sūtra based primarily on the Degé edition of the Tibetan Kangyur. We have, however, consulted the Sanskrit as edited by Kudo from the Gilgit manuscripts and the edition by Iwamoto reconstructed from the later manuscripts. Through this process we found that the Tibetan aligns quite closely but by no means perfectly with what is found in the Gilgit manuscripts.22
[F.291.b]Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The blessed Buddha was dwelling in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park.
At that time, a daughter of Anāthapiṇḍada known as Sumāgadhā, who was faithful, good-natured, virtuous in her thoughts, and engaged in benefiting herself and others, was dwelling in Śrāvastī.
Meanwhile, in a city known as Puṇḍravardhana, there lived another merchant, whose son was known as Vṛṣabhadatta. By associating with the heterodox non-Buddhists, he had come to believe in the nirgranthas.23 Whenever the Blessed One performed miraculous displays, the non-Buddhists would remain in the outlying districts—some in the city called Bhadrika,24 some in the area known as Mudgirika,25 and some in the city known as Puṇḍravardhana.
At that time, Vṛṣabhadatta had not yet established a household. Concerning that, the nirgranthas said, “There is a daughter of Anāthapiṇḍada called Sumāgadhā, who is beautiful, pleasing to behold, and graceful, the most beautiful woman in the land.”26
As soon as he heard that, Vṛṣabhadatta assumed the guise of a nirgrantha mendicant and traveled to Śrāvastī. He entered the home of the householder Anāthapiṇḍada to collect alms, and there he saw the girl. He was enamored the moment he saw her, and when he received the alms, he took them in his hat.27 The girl saw his improper behavior and laughingly said, “This one is absentmindedly accepting alms!”
Vṛṣabhadatta was ashamed and returned to the city of Puṇḍravardhana. There he spoke to his father, who accepted the girl.
Anāthapiṇḍada[F.292.a] asked the Blessed One about this, and the Blessed One replied, “Actually, if Sumāgadhā goes to Puṇḍravardhana, she will perform the activity of renunciants and the activity of a buddha.”
So the householder Anāthapiṇḍada informed her relatives and she was betrothed and conveyed to the city of Puṇḍravardhana.
Shortly thereafter, when the nirgranthas were eating at home, Sumāgadhā’s mother-in-law said, “Today, the venerable ones will come to our home for an offering of food. Come and see the venerable ones.”
On hearing this Sumāgadhā was happy, pleased, gladdened, and cheered. Thinking, “Surely it is the reverend Śāriputra, Mahāmaudgalyāyana, and the other great śrāvakas who have come!” she was greatly pleased and went without hesitation.
But as soon as she saw the nirgranthas, who were like naked wild buffalo, with plucked hair like pigeon squabs, Sumāgadhā was embarrassed and averted her face. Her mother-in-law asked, “Daughter, why are you displeased?”
She replied, “If ones such as these are objects of veneration, who would not be considered a venerable one?”
Her mother-in-law asked her, “Do you have teachers who are superior to these?”
The girl replied, “In my father’s monastery, Prince Jeta’s Grove, there is a teacher known as the Buddha. He is the object of veneration of the entire animate and inanimate world.”
“What is your teacher like?” she asked.
The girl replied:
Upon hearing this, her mother-in-law was overjoyed, and she asked, “Daughter, can you show us that Blessed One tomorrow?”
Sumāgadhā replied, “Prepare offerings of food,[F.292.b] and tomorrow I will invite the Blessed One.”
Sometime later they said, “The offerings of food have been prepared, so you should invite the Blessed One tomorrow.”
Then Sumāgadhā climbed to the very top of the house. She folded her hands and paid homage in the direction of the Blessed One, recalled the good qualities of the Blessed One, and strewed flowers and made offerings29 of incense. In order to invite the Blessed One, she sprinkled water from a golden vase.30
Then she spoke these piteous words: “O Blessed One possessed of great compassion, like a wild animal I have come to this frontier, separated from the Three Jewels. Please care for me, and with your saṅgha of monks please come to this place!”
And she spoke these words:
Just then the flowers, incense, and water from the golden vase rose into the sky, and at that moment the Blessed One arose from his deep absorption and taught the Dharma to the fourfold assembly. The water from the golden vase came to rest before the Blessed One like a staff of beryl, the flowers rested like a pinnacled temple in the sky above the Blessed One, and the fragrant incense came to rest like heaps of clouds.
Seeing this, the venerable Ānanda inquired of the Blessed One, “Blessed One, from whence does this invitation come?”
The Blessed One replied, “Ānanda, it came 163 yojanas from the city of Puṇḍravardhana. Ānanda, as that city is held by non-Buddhists, we must go there with an extraordinary display of miraculous power.[F.293.a] Therefore, distribute the tally sticks to the monks.”
Right away, the venerable Ānanda distributed the tally sticks, starting with the most senior monk. He said, “Tomorrow we will go to the city of Puṇḍravardhana. As that city is completely held by non-Buddhists, those among you who have attained miraculous power must take these tally sticks.” Then the process of taking the tally sticks began, starting with the most senior monk.
Among them was the elder known as Pūrṇa.31 Although he had not attained miraculous power, he reached out his hand to take a tally stick. The venerable Ānanda said to him, “Elder, we are not going to the home of Anāthapiṇḍada, but we must travel to a place 163 yojanas from here known as Puṇḍravardhana.”
The elder thought, “I have abandoned the defilements to which I had been habituated since beginningless time, so what could be difficult about such miraculous power, which is common even to non-Buddhists? I will not produce it.” Due to that thought, however, at that very moment the miraculous power was produced. As the second tally stick had not yet been distributed, the elder reached out his hand like an elephant’s trunk and took the tally stick.
Meanwhile, Venerable Ānanda, sitting at the head of the elders, said, “Those who have attained miraculous power must go to the city of Puṇḍravardhana.”
Then on the second day, at daybreak, the monks prepared by perfecting their displays of miraculous power. The Four Great Kings also set out in the direction of Śrāvastī. As they did so, the one known as Ājñātakauṇḍinya, mounted on a horse chariot, displayed a flash of lightning and brought down a gentle rain. Thus demonstrating his miraculous power, he made his entrance.
Sumāgadhā’s master32 saw this and asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this your teacher?”
She replied,[F.293.b] “This one is known as Ājñātakauṇḍinya. He is arriving first since he was the first to realize that there is no self after the Blessed One first turned the wheel of Dharma.”33
Then the elder Mahākāśyapa made his entrance from the sky above, having magically created a great rocky mountain covered with hundreds of variegated trees and various forms of birds, lushly carpeted with a diversity of flowers, and beautified by manifold rivulets.
The master of the house saw that and asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this your teacher?”
She replied, “This one who now arrives is known as Mahākāśyapa. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the preachers for his abiding in ascetic practices. He gave up nine hundred ninety-nine pairs of oxen and abandoned, like spittle in the dust, Kapilabhadrā, the most beautiful woman in the land,34 and great wealth and much gold, and went forth and became a renunciant.”
Next, the venerable Śāriputra, having magically created a lion chariot, made his entrance in the sky above using his miraculous power.
The master of the house saw that and asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in a lion chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Śāriputra. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those endowed with wisdom. As soon as he entered his mother’s womb, he was victorious over all those who engage in of debate throughout the entire world. He who arrives in the lion chariot is the second teacher, the second supreme one, the Dharma chief who subsequently turns the wheel of Dharma.”
Right after that, the venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana, having magically created a king of elephants that was like the elephant Airāvaṇa, made his entrance in the sky above using his miraculous power.
The master of the house saw that and asked Sumāgadhā, “Is this one who arrives on an elephant that is like Airāvaṇa, the king of elephants, your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Mahāmaudgalyāyana. The Blessed One[F.294.a] pronounced him chief among those with miraculous power. With his miraculous power, he shook Vaijayanta, the mansion of Śakra, the lord of the gods, with his big toe, and he tamed the nāga kings Nanda and Upananda. It is he who arrives on an elephant chariot.”
Next, the venerable Aniruddha made his entrance from the sky using his miraculous power, having magically created a lotus the size of a chariot wheel and made entirely of gold, with a stem of beryl and a stamen of silver.
Seeing that, the master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this your teacher?”
She replied, “This one is the monk known as Aniruddha. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those possessed of the divine eye. He conducts himself such that by the power of his merit five hundred vessels filled with cooked food arrive at his door by merely thinking of them. At the slightest thought, robes, alms, food, bedding, medicines for illness, and all necessities arise. It is he who arrives on a lotus chariot.”
Then the venerable Pūrṇa35 made his entrance from the sky above, having magically created a garuḍa chariot.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is the one arriving on a garuḍa chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This one is the monk known as Pūrṇa. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the teachers of Dharma. It is he who arrives on a garuḍa chariot.”
Next, the venerable Aśvajit made his entrance in an extremely peaceful manner.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in such a tranquil manner, holding an alms bowl, your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Aśvajit. With his tranquil manner, he tamed a mad elephant. Seeing his tranquil manner, the noble Śāriputra saw the truth, went forth and became a renunciant in the teaching of the Blessed One, and, having become a renunciant, attained arhathood.[F.294.b] It is he who arrives in a tranquil manner.”
Then the venerable Upāli made his entrance from the sky above using his miraculous power, having magically created a forest of golden palm trees.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in a forest of golden palm trees your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Upāli. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the holders of the Vinaya. As many as five hundred Śākya renunciants placed a great heap of ornaments such as necklaces, bracelets, armlets, golden parasols, and garments in front of him. When he saw them, he felt a great revulsion. Understanding them all to be impermanent, he became a renunciant in the teaching of the Buddha, and, having become a renunciant, he realized the state of an arhat. It is he who arrives in a forest of golden palm trees.”
Next, the venerable Mahākātyāyanaputra made his entrance from the sky using his miraculous power, having magically created a pinnacled temple made of beryl.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives seated in a pinnacled temple made of beryl your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Mahākātyāyanaputra. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among the Sautrāntika and Vaibhāṣika teachers. It is he who arrives seated in a pinnacled temple made of beryl.
Next, the venerable Kauṣṭhila made his entrance from the sky above using his miraculous power, having magically created a bull chariot.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives riding on a bull chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Kauṣṭhila. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who have attained analytical knowledge. It is he who arrives seated on a bull chariot.”
Then the venerable Pilindavatsa, by means of a swan chariot, made his entrance from the sky above using his miraculous power.[F.295.a]
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives riding a swan chariot your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Pilindavatsa. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who abide in compassion. When he wished to cross the Ganges River, he commanded, ‘Stay, servant woman!’ As soon as he spoke those words, she remained like a mountain peak, not flowing at all. It is he who arrives on a swan chariot.”
Next, the venerable Koṭīviṃśakarṇa made his entrance on foot, walking in a mountain forest.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives walking in a forest that is filled with hundreds of trees your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the monk known as Karṇika. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who exert themselves in diligence. As soon as he was born, he possessed a worth of two hundred million chaffed grains,36 and from the soles of his feet sprouted golden hair four finger-breadths in length. He is the one on whom five hundred karṣāpaṇa coins were spent for his first cooked meal, and when the Blessed One was ill and Mahāmaudgalyāyana brought it as a food offering for him, its aroma filled the whole of the Veṇuvana, so that King Bimbisāra smelled it and was greatly amazed. He is the one who, merely setting down his two feet, caused this earth to quake. He is the one, after he became a renunciant and stepped onto the meditation walkway, from whose two feet blood37 flowed and was drunk by crows. It is he who arrives on foot.”
Then the venerable Rāhula made his entrance, having magically created the appearance of a universal monarch.
The master of the house asked, “Sumāgadhā, is this one who arrives in the image of a universal monarch your teacher?”
She replied, “This is the son of the Blessed One. The Blessed One pronounced him chief among those who hold the precepts. He gloriously demonstrates what was relinquished by his father, and in the appearance of a universal monarch he is[F.295.b] possessed of the seven treasures and surrounded by thousands of youths. He is the one who arrives like the moon surrounded by a host of planets, constellations, and stars; like a lord of humans who has entered the royal road; like an ocean filled by the cascading of a thousand rivers; like a great protector of beings who dispels fear, illness, and misery; like a lion among beasts; like a garuḍa among birds; like the all-clearing sun; and like a universal monarch ruling the four continents. It is he who arrives like the thousand-eyed protector of the Dharma in the assembly hall of Sudharma.”38
Likewise, the others made their entrances demonstrating a variety of miraculous displays—some displaying a blaze of fire, some a shower of rain. Some rose up from the earth, some rested on the foundation of the sky, and some created seats. Behold the might of those possessing miraculous power!39 This is how the disciples of the Blessed One went.
Then the Blessed One emitted a light by which all of Jambudvīpa was filled with light the color of refined gold. By sending forth a great mass of light from Śrāvastī all the way to Puṇḍravardhana, nowhere was there anything that could not be seen by the eyes; thus was there total visibility. The Blessed One too proceeded through the sky, with Vajrapāṇi following40 behind him, the residents of Śuddhāvāsa above, the gods of the desire realm below, Śakra on the left, and Brahmā on the right.
Likewise, gandharvas such as Pañcaśikha, Supriya, and Eye Gift traveled in great numbers, playing pleasant, diverse melodies on lutes, flutes, paṇava drums,41 clay drums, and the like, and strewing flowers, incense, perfumes, and garlands.
Meanwhile, the Blessed One established seventy-seven thousand beings in the truth for the first time and, having done so, he arrived at the city of Puṇḍravardhana. The city had eighteen gates, at which the Blessed One emanated eighteen buddhas,[F.296.a] a buddha appearing at each of the gates. Then the Blessed One arrived at Sumāgadhā’s house.
Since they could not see the blessed Buddha, the great crowd of people became angry and started to break down the house. So, the Blessed One used his intention to transform the entire city into crystal, so that the body of the Buddha could be seen seated within each and every house.
Sumāgadhā and many hundreds of thousands of other beings in Puṇḍravardhana then offered flowers, perfumes, garlands, and incense to the Blessed One. The Blessed One taught the Dharma to Sumāgadhā and the rest of the great gathering of people in such a way that those who heard it—Sumāgadhā and the many hundreds and thousands of other beings—obtained the direct vision of the truth. The entire assembly became inclined toward the Buddha, disposed to the Dharma, and favorable toward the Saṅgha.
Yet, the monks were perplexed, and to ease all their uncertainty, they addressed the Blessed One: “Blessed One, it is wondrous how by Sumāgadhā’s going to the other side, many hundreds of thousands of beings have become inclined toward the higher realms and toward liberation, and that by this she has accomplished buddha activity.”
The Blessed One replied, “Listen to how she accomplished buddha activity, not only at present but in the past, too. Monks, in ancient times, long ago, when the lifespan of humans was twenty thousand years, the perfectly complete buddha known as Kāśyapa, one endowed with perfect knowledge and conduct, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, an unsurpassed charioteer who tames beings, a teacher of gods and humans, a blessed buddha, emerged in the world. At that time, a king known as Kṛkin ruled the city of Vārāṇasī. His daughter was born with a golden garland, and so they named her Kāñcanamālā.
“Later, when the girl had grown up, she went together with a retinue of young ladies, in all five hundred young girls of the same age,[F.296.b] to pay her respects to the perfectly complete Buddha Kāśyapa. Because they had faith in him, for as long as they lived they continued to serve that perfectly complete buddha, the blessed Kāśyapa, providing him with robes, alms, food, bedding, medicines for curing illness, and other necessities.
“During that time, one night, King Kṛkin dreamed ten dreams. As he recalled, ‘I dreamed of a king of elephants who, emerging from a window, was caught by its thin tail; I dreamed of hastening to a well when no longer thirsty; I saw the sale of a measure of pearls for a measure of flour; I saw sandalwood and ordinary wood being given equal value; I saw thieves stealing sumptuous fruits from a garden; I saw an elephant calf scaring a rutting elephant; I saw a dirty monkey smearing others with filth; I saw a monkey who was consecrated as king; I saw a piece of cloth not being torn though it was pulled42 by eighteen men; and I saw a great crowd of people assembled together who passed the time43 quarreling, arguing, fighting, and criticizing one another.’
“Then the king awoke, distraught with fear and apprehension, thinking, ‘Has my life been threatened, or am I to fall from power?’ So he gathered some brahmins who were learned in the interpretation of dream signs, and he described his dreams to them.
“However, because the brahmins despised Kāñcanamālā, they said, ‘Your Majesty, you must make a sacrificial offering to the fire with the heart of the one who is most dear to you of all.’
“In despair, the king thought, ‘The one who is to me the sweetest of all is my Kāñcanamālā!’
“Kāñcanamālā heard about this, and since she was learned, she approached the king. ‘Your Majesty, when the sun is shining, what need is there for the flame of a lamp? The perfectly complete Buddha, the blessed Kāśyapa, is dwelling at the Ṛṣivadana in Deer Park—you should go there and ask him. That blessed one will give you an accurate prophecy, to which you should adhere.’
“Then King Kṛkin sounded a great gong and announced, ‘Now I will go to the city of Vārāṇasī, to the presence of that blessed one,’ and together with Kāñcanamālā and a retinue of many hundreds of thousands, he went to where the Blessed One was. There, they bowed their heads to the feet of the Blessed One[F.297.a] and sat before the Blessed One in order to listen to the Dharma.
“After some time, King Kṛkin rose from his seat and approached the Blessed One. He bowed with his hands folded and told the Blessed One, ‘O Blessed One, in a single night I witnessed ten dreams. An elephant, emerging from a window, was caught by its tail…’ and so forth as before.44 ‘Please, Blessed One, tell me the portent of these dreams.’
“The Blessed One replied, ‘Be not afraid, Great King. Your kingdom will not decline, and your life is not in danger. On the contrary, Great King, in the future, when the lifespan of humans is one hundred years, a perfectly complete buddha known as Śākyamuni will appear, and in the latter part of that time there will emerge śrāvakas whose bodies are unrestrained, whose minds are unrestrained, whose moral discipline is unrestrained, and whose wisdom is unrestrained. They will abandon their kin and become renunciants, yet by engaging the notion of the household while in monasteries, they will still be attached. The elephant being caught by its tail when emerging from a window is a premonition of that.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of hastening to a well when no longer thirsty is a premonition that although the Dharma will be taught to those who assemble together in a monastery, they will not desire to listen, nor will they keep those teachings in mind.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of the sale of a measure of pearls for a measure of flour is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas who will correctly teach the faculties, powers, and precious branches of awakening merely for the sake of food.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of sandalwood and ordinary wood being given equal value is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas who, apprehending the words of non-Buddhists, will equate them with the words of the Buddha.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of thieves stealing sumptuous fruits from a garden[F.297.b] is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas whose bodies are unrestrained, whose minds are unrestrained, whose moral discipline is unrestrained, and whose wisdom is unrestrained, and that they will take the best flowers and fruits of the saṅgha and give them to householders for the purpose of their livelihood.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of an elephant calf scaring a rutting elephant is a premonition that śrāvakas who have faulty moral discipline and are possessed of sinful propensities will overpower monks who possess moral discipline and virtuous propensities.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a dirty monkey smearing others with filth is a premonition that there will emerge śrāvakas who have faulty moral discipline and are possessed of sinful propensities and that they will deprecate those who possess moral discipline.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a monkey who was consecrated as king is a premonition that at that time deluded ones will be consecrated as kings.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a piece of cloth not being torn though it was pulled45 by eighteen men is a premonition that although the teaching on reality will be split into eighteen factions, the cloth of liberation cannot be torn.
“ ‘Great King, your dream of a great crowd of people assembled together quarreling, arguing, fighting, and criticizing one another other is a premonition that the teaching on reality will fade away through dispute.
“ ‘Great King, such unbearable things will come to pass in the future.’
“And with these words, King Kṛkin and Kāñcanamālā generated roots of virtue toward the perfectly and completely awakened Buddha Kāśyapa that made them conducive to liberation.
“Monks, what do you think? The one known at that time as Kāñcanamālā was this Sumāgadhā herself. At that time she[F.298.a] performed buddha activity, and likewise she has come here and once again performed buddha activity.”
Then the monks, with doubts arising, inquired of the blessed Buddha, “Reverend One, due to what former action was Kāñcanamālā born tied with a golden garland?”
The Blessed One replied, “Monks, it was due to this action: Long ago, the wife of some farmer or other made garlands of variously colored flowers and tied them up at the caitya of a pratyekabuddha. By the ripening of that action, she was born tied with a golden garland. Therefore, monks, the ripening of purely dark actions is purely dark, the ripening of those that are purely white is purely white, and the ripening of those that are mixed is mixed. Therefore, monks, you should abandon purely dark and mixed actions and exert yourselves in purely white actions. Monks, you should train in this way.”
Iwamoto (1968, pp. 185–86) notes that this is confirmed by Indian art, particularly the Sikhri stone relief in the Karachi Museum.
Silk (2018, p. 429) lists “several Abhidharma commentaries, the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyaṭīkā Tattvārtha of Sthiramati, the Abhidharmakośavyākhyā of Yaśomitra and the Abhidharmakośopāyikā of Śamathadeva […] and in the Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalātā of Kṣemendra.” He also cites “both a Sūtra of the Seven Dreams of Ānanda […], and another text complex concerning the Dreams of King Prasenajit, in quite a number of versions, which vary in number of dreams and sometimes appear instead as the Dreams of King Caṇḍapradyota.”
Markus Görtz, “Deutsche Übersetzung der beiden Sanskritfassungen des Sumāgadhāvadāna und vergleichende Untersuchung der bekannten Fassungen der Sumāgadhā-Legende” (master’s thesis, Marburg, 1993).
Translation in Burlingame 1921, vol. 28, pp. 242–44; Iwamoto (1968, pp. 195–97) places this as the oldest version.
In Lokesh Chandra, ed., Mongolian Kanjur (New Delhi: Sharada Rani, 1973–79), vol. 91, pp. 741–50.
Kudo (2016, pp. 321 and 322) says that it was translated into Tibetan in the eighth to ninth centuries, an estimate that is also found in Iwamoto’s study (1968, p. 101) and apparently adopted from there by Kudo. However, it is unclear how this date was reached. Iwamoto acknowledges that the translation was done by Dharmaśrībhadra and Tsültrim Yönten, who are estimated to have lived in the tenth to eleventh centuries and, along with Rinchen Zangpo, contributed to the later phase (Tib. phyi dar) of translation in Tibet.
The meaning of the Tibetan phrase gzhan mu stegs pa sten pas gcer bu pa rnams la mngon par dad pa zhig gnas pa was clarified following the Sanskrit (N) sa cānyatīrthyasaṃsargān nirgrantheṣv abhiprasanno ’bhūt (Iwamoto 1968, p. 8).
The name of this area (yul, grāma) follows the Degé mud gi ri ka. Yongle, Lithang, Peking, and Choné read mud g+hi ri ka. The Sanskrit in the Nepal manuscript has the name Gauḍika (Iwamoto 1968, p. 8).
Translation tentative, following the Degé de der bslangs pa’i tshe shwa’i nang du blangs. Lithang, Lhasa, and Stok have phye (“flour/meal”) rather than tshe (“when”), the former agreeing with the Sanskrit (N) śaktu. In the Sanskrit (N), Vṛṣabhadatta may be unsteady due to his infatuation with the girl: sa bhrāntena khorakena śaktuṁ pratigṛhnāti, unless there is a scribal error reading khoraka (khora meaning “limping” or “lame”) for kholaka/khola (“hat”) (Kudo 2017, p. 290, n. 15). Regardless, he is not behaving properly.
Following Yongle, Peking, Narthang, and Stok tsam pa’i tshogs ltar ser. The Calcutta manuscript of the Sanskrit contains the corresponding phrase śāstā hemacampakaśairo [reading-śailo] (“[My] teacher is [like] a mountain of golden campaka flowers”). Degé reads btso ma’i tshogs ltar ser, perhaps “golden like a mass of refined substance.” This could be a reflection of the following compound in the Calcutta manuscript, nirdhāntahemapratimaḥ (“like refined gold”), which is followed by kanakāvadātaḥ (“dazzling white like gold”). Iwamoto 1968, p. 46; see also Kudo 2016, p. 334, n. 48.
Following the Sanskrit (N) dadāti “gives/offers”. Iwamoto 1968, p. 11. The Tibetan here appears to be corrupt. Degé btul, Narthang and Stok gtul.
Shortening the quite wordy Tibetan gser gyi bum pa’i chus bcom ldan ’das spyan drang ba’i phyir gser gyi bum pa’i chu yang sbrengs so (“With water from a golden vase, in order to invite the Blessed One, she sprinkled the water from the golden vase”). The Sanskrit (N) (Iwamoto 1968, p. 11) is more straightforward, omitting the first mention of the vase: bhṛṅgārodakaṃ ca bhagavato nimantraṇakaṃ preṣayati.
The Narthang, Lhasa, and Stok Palace Kangyurs identify this figure as the elder Pūrṇa from Kuṇḍopadāna (Narthang: pUr na kun da ud pa da na; Lhasa: pU ra nu kun da ud pa da na; Stok: pūr na kun da u pa da na). He is different from the other Pūrṇa who later flies to Puṇḍravardhana on a garuḍa. There the Sanskrit (A) gives pūrṇo maitrāyaṇīputraḥ (Kudo 2016, p. 336).
Tib. bdag po; Skt. svāmin. This could refer to Sumāgadhā’s husband or perhaps her father-in-law. Later this figure referred to as the “master of the house” (Tib. khyim bdag; Skt. gṛhapati).
Following Skt. (B) prathamataḥ dharmmacakraṃ pravarttitaṃ. Degé reads chos kyi ’khor lo dang po bskor ba.
Translation tentative. Degé skye bo dge rnams dang mtshungs pa (“equal to virtuous people”). This probably corresponds to the Sanskrit (N, B) (Iwamoto 1968, p. 8; Kudo 2017, p. 289) compound janapadakalyāṇīsadṛśīṃ (“like the most beautiful woman in the land”).
Translation tentative (’di skyes pa tsam gyis rna ba bye ba nyi shu ri ba dang bcas par skyes pa). See Dorji Wangchuk (“What is Ri in Gro-bzhin skyes rNa-ba-bye-ba-ri?” Pratisaṃvid, accessed February 13, 2023), who understands rna ba to refer to “eared/chaffed-grains (i.e., valuables/gems),” meaning “priceless.” Ri ba corresponds to mūlya (“value/worth”) found in the Sanskrit versions. The Sanskrit N splits this figure into two, one born with an earring called Śroṇa Koṭīkarṇa, son of Balasena, and one (who similarly arrives walking in the forest) called Śroṇa Koṭiviṃśa (Iwamoto 1986, pp. 22–23). Manuscripts A and C (Kudo 2017, p. 299; Kudo 2016, p. 336) have a single figure, Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa, who arrives walking in the forest. Manuscript A reads asya jatamātrasya pitā jananaṃ śrutvā viṃśatikoṭibhir ācchāditaḥ (“as soon as this one was born, his father, having heard about the birth, clothed/covered him in two hundred million”).
In other accounts of Śroṇa Koṭīviṃśa (Pali: Soṇa Koḷivisa), the hair on his feet was said to have been very soft like down and especially tender; thus, on a certain occasion he is reported to have bled when he paced about in meditation. For an example, see his story in the Cammakkhandhaka of the Pali Vinaya, which contains the rules for monks related to footwear (Bhikku Brahmali, trans., “The Chapter on Skins,” Sutta Central, first edition 2021).
This last analogy refers to the god Śakra and the assembly hall in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.
The Sanskrit (A) confirms the imperative here (Tib. rdzu ’phrul ldan pa’i mthu la ltos), given Kudo’s emendation (2016, p. 337, n. 86): paśya riddhivatāṃ balam.
Following Yongle, Peking, and Narthang ’breng, Stok ’brang, and the Sanskrit (A) pṛṣṭhato (Kudo 2016, p. 337). Degé reads ’greng (“standing”).
Based on the Sanskrit (A) paṇava (Iwamoto 2016, p. 337). The Tibetan simply reads rnga (“drum”).
Reading Yongle, Peking, Narthang, Lhasa, and Stok drangs. Degé dras (“cut”?). See also Kudo (2016 p. 339, n. 110), who suggests “drawn” for the unusual verb-form kaḍhyate in the Sanskrit (A).
Reading the Sanskrit (A) -atināmayati (Kudo 2016, p. 339). The Nepal manuscript has the same reading, though Iwamoto (1968, p. 39) reads the verb with a negation: -nātināmayati. The former reading would account for the Tibetan, which precedes the verb with an instrumental (see also Kudo 2017, p. 306, n. 326). The Tibetan ’jigs pa (“to be afraid”) makes less sense.
Here the reader is meant to understand that the king recites the remaining nine dreams to the Blessed One.
The white elephant who is the mount of Indra (or Śakra).
An arhat and disciple the Buddha Śākyamuni. He is counted among the five wandering mendicants (parivrājaka) who initially ridiculed the Buddha for abandoning his asceticism but later became one of his first disciples. Also known as Kauṇḍinyagotra and Kauṇḍinya.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
A wealthy merchant in the town of Śrāvastī, famous for his generosity to the poor, who became a patron of the Buddha Śākyamuni. He bought Prince Jeta’s Grove (Skt. Jetavana), to be the Buddha’s first monastery, a place where the monks could stay during the monsoon.
See also “Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park.”
Lit. “Unobstructed.” One of the ten great śrāvaka disciples, famed for his meditative prowess and superknowledges. He was the Buddha's cousin—a son of Amṛtodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana—and is often mentioned along with his two brothers Bhadrika and Mahānāma. Some sources also include Ānanda among his brothers.
According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.
See “arhat.”
The son of one of the seven brahmins who predicted that Śākyamuni would become a great king. He was one of the five companions with Śākyamuni in the beginning of his spiritual path, abandoning him when he gave up asceticism, but then becoming one of his first five pupils after his buddhahood. He was the last of the five to attain the realization of a “stream entrant” and became an arhat on hearing the Sūtra on the Characteristics of Selflessness (Anātmalakṣaṇasūtra), which was not translated into Tibetan. Aśvajit was the one who went to meet Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana so they would become followers of the Buddha.
See “Exemplary Tale.”
A city outside of Śrāvastī held principally by non-Buddhists.
The king of Magadha and a great patron of the Buddha. His birth coincided with the Buddha’s, and his father, King Mahāpadma, named him “Essence of Gold” after mistakenly attributing the brilliant light that marked the Buddha’s birth to the birth of his son by Queen Bimbī (“Goldie”). Accounts of Bimbisāra’s youth and life can be found in The Chapter on Going Forth (Toh 1-1, Pravrajyāvastu).
King Śreṇya Bimbisāra first met with the Buddha early on, when the latter was the wandering mendicant known as Gautama. Impressed by his conduct, Bimbisāra offered to take Gautama into his court, but Gautama refused, and Bimbisāra wished him success in his quest for awakening and asked him to visit his palace after he had achieved his goal. One account of this episode can be found in the sixteenth chapter of The Play in Full (Toh 95, Lalitavistara). There are other accounts where the two meet earlier on in childhood; several episodes can be found, for example, in The Hundred Deeds (Toh 340, Karmaśataka). Later, after the Buddha’s awakening, Bimbisāra became one of his most famous patrons and donated to the saṅgha the Bamboo Grove, Veṇuvana, at the outskirts of the capital of Magadha, Rājagṛha, where he built residences for the monks. Bimbisāra was imprisoned and killed by his own son, the prince Ajātaśatru, who, influenced by Devadatta, sought to usurp his father’s throne.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).
The Tibetan translates both stūpa and caitya with the same word, mchod rten, meaning “basis” or “recipient” of “offerings” or “veneration.” Pali: cetiya.
A caitya, although often synonymous with stūpa, can also refer to any site, sanctuary or shrine that is made for veneration, and may or may not contain relics.
A stūpa, literally “heap” or “mound,” is a mounded or circular structure usually containing relics of the Buddha or the masters of the past. It is considered to be a sacred object representing the awakened mind of a buddha, but the symbolism of the stūpa is complex, and its design varies throughout the Buddhist world. Stūpas continue to be erected today as objects of veneration and merit making.
The forest located on the outskirts of Vārāṇasī where the Buddha first taught the Dharma.
The Indian scholar who assisted with the translation of The Exemplary Tale of Sumāgadhā and other works into Tibetan. He lived sometime during the late tenth century to the middle of the eleventh century.
Clairvoyance, i.e., the ability to see all forms whether they are near or far, subtle or gross; also the ability to see the births and deaths of sentient beings. This is the first of the six (or sometimes five) superknowledges (ṣaḍabhijñā).
Literally “one who is stable” and usually translated as “elder”; a senior monk in the early Buddhist communities.
This term also has the literal meaning of “endowed with knowledge and feet.” The Nibandhana explains this as a metaphor of the eye and the feet, which, operating together, allow one to move; knowledge, interpreted as either “right view” or as “the training in wisdom,” is like the eye, while the other seven parts of the noble eightfold path, or the two other trainings in discipline and samādhi, function as the “feet.” This explanation is also found in the sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti, which further clarifies that zhabs is here simply the honorific term for “foot” (caraNa ni rkang pa).
One of the twelve types of the Buddha’s teaching (dvādaśāṅga). In this sense, the Sanskrit word avadāna means “exceptional feat” or “magnificent deed,” but in the context of the twelve types of buddhavacana the term came to refer to the narrative accounts of such deeds.
A gandharva.
The five spiritual “faculties” or capacities to be developed: faith (śraddhā), diligence (vīrya), mindfulness (smṛti), absorption (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā). These are included in the thirty-seven factors of awakening.
Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahārājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).
A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”
The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.
According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.
In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.
The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.
“She Who Has a Golden Garland.” The daughter of King Kṛkin of Vārāṇasī in the distant past.
A famous nun who was the wife of Mahākāśyapa for twelve years prior to their ordination.
See “Koṭīviṃśakarṇa.”
A coin that varied in value according to whether it was made of gold, silver, or copper.
A former buddha usually counted as the third of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Śākyamuni.
One of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, known for his skill in analytical reasoning. Also called Mahākauṣṭhila.
Also known as Śroṇa Koṭīviṃśa (Pali: Soṇa Koḷivisa). He was very wealthy and pampered prior to becoming a disciple of the Buddha Śākyamuni, to the extent that soft hair grew on the soles of his feet, yet as a monk he became known for his exertion.
A king of a Vārāṇasī in the distant past, during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa.
One of the principal disciples of the Buddha, known for his ascetic practice. He became the Buddha’s successor on his passing. Also known as Kāśyapa.
One of the ten principal pupils of the Buddha, he was renowned for his ability to understand and explaining the Buddha’s teachings.
One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, paired with Śāriputra. He was renowned for his miraculous powers. His family clan was descended from Mudgala, hence his name Maudgalyāyana, “the son of Mudgala’s descendants.” Respectfully referred to as Mahāmaudgalyāyana, “Great Maudgalyāyana.”
A straight walkway used for walking meditation, usually around forty feet long and often raised above the level of the ground.
The supernatural powers of a śrāvaka correspond to the first abhijñā: “Being one he becomes many, being many he becomes one; he becomes visible, invisible; goes through walls, ramparts and mountains without being impeded, just as through air; he immerses himself in the earth and emerges from it as if in water; he goes on water without breaking through it, as if on [solid] earth; he travels through the air crosslegged like a winged bird; he takes in his hands and touches the moon and the sun, those two wonderful, mighty beings, and with his body he extends his power as far as the Brahma world” (Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra, trans. Lamotte 2003).
The great supernatural powers (maharddhi) of bodhisattvas are “causing trembling, blazing, illuminating, rendering invisible, transforming, coming and going across obstacles, reducing or enlarging worlds, inserting any matter into one’s own body, assuming the aspects of those one frequents, appearing and disappearing, submitting everyone to one’s will, dominating the supernormal power of others, giving intellectual clarity to those who lack it, giving mindfulness, bestowing happiness, and finally, emitting beneficial rays” (Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra, trans. Lamotte 2003).
Morally virtuous or disciplined conduct and the abandonment of morally undisciplined conduct of body, speech, and mind. In a general sense, moral discipline is the cause for rebirth in higher, more favorable states, but it is also foundational to Buddhist practice as one of the three trainings (triśikṣā) and one of the six perfections of a bodhisattva. Often rendered as “ethics,” “discipline,” and “morality.”
A city outside of Śrāvastī held principally by non-Buddhists.
A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.
One of the eight great nāga kings. Usually paired with the nāga king Upananda.
The Tibetan means “naked one,” and the Sanskrit “without possessions” or “without ties.” A nirgrantha is a non-Buddhist religious mendicant who eschews clothing and possessions, the term usually referring to Jains, including both ascetics and anyone otherwise following the tradition, such as householders.
Those of religious or philosophical orders that were contemporary with the early Buddhist order, including Jains, Jaṭilas, Ājīvikas, and Cārvākas. Initially, the term tīrthika or tīrthya may have referred to non-brahmanic ascetic orders. Tīrthika (“forder”) literally translates as “one belonging to or associated with (possessive suffix -ika) stairs for landing or for descent into a river,” or “a bathing place,” or “a place of pilgrimage on the banks of sacred streams” (Monier-Williams). The term may have originally referred to temple priests at river crossings or fords where travelers propitiated a deity before crossing. The Sanskrit term seems to have undergone metonymic transfer in referring to those able to ford the turbulent river of saṃsāra (as in the Jain tīrthaṅkaras, “ford makers”), and it came to be used in Buddhist sources to refer to teachers of rival religious traditions. The Sanskrit term is closely rendered by the Tibetan mu stegs pa: “those on the steps (stegs pa) at the edge (mu).”
See “venerable one.”
A gandharva who was very prominent in early Buddhism and is featured on early stūpa reliefs playing a lute and singing. He was portrayed as living on a five-peaked mountain and appears to be the basis for Mañjuśrī, first known as Mañjughoṣa (“Beautiful Voice”); Pañcaśikha remains one of Mañjuśrī’s names.
ma ga d+hA bzang mo’i rtogs pa brjod pa (Sumāgadhāvadāna). Toh 346, Degé Kangyur vol. 75 (mdo sde, aM), folios 291.b–298.a.
ma ga d+hA bzang mo’i rtogs pa brjod pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 75, pp. 797–819.
ma ga d+ha bzang mo’i rtogs pa brjod pa. Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 79 (mdo sde, sa), folios 48.a–59.a.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan dkar gyi chos kyi ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Phangthangma (dkar chag ’phang thang ma). Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003.
Burlingame, Eugene Watson. Buddhist Legends. The Harvard Oriental Series 28–30. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921.
Iwamoto, Yutaka, ed. Sumāgadhāvadāna. Studien zur Buddhistischen erzählungsliteratur 2. Kyoto: Hozokan Verlag, 1968. Digital version of Iwamoto’s edition available at GRETIL, input by Klaus Wille, accessed February 6, 2023.
Kudo, Noriyuki (2014). “Brief Communication: Newly Identified Folios in the Gilgit Buddhist Manuscripts.” Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology (ARIRIAB) at Soka University 17 (2014): 517–18.
Kudo, Noriyuki (2016). 『スマーガダー･アヴァダーナ』ギルギット写本 (1): 写本 A [Gilgit manuscripts of the Sumāgadhā-avadāna (1): Manuscript A]. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology (ARIRIAB) at Soka University 19 (2016): 319–44.
Kudo, Noriyuki (2017). 『スマーガダー･アヴァダーナ』ギルギット写本 (2): 写本 B, C [Gilgit manuscripts of the Sumāgadhā-avadāna (2): Manuscripts B and C with a special reference to the fragments in the Srinagar collection]. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology (ARIRIAB) at Soka University 20 (2017): 287–312.
Roerich, George N., trans. The Blue Annals: Parts I & II. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2007.
Silk, Jonathan. “A Present Future Foretold: The Ten Dreams of King Kṛkin in Pelliot tibétain 997.” In Festschrit für Jens-Uwe Hartmann zum 65. Geburtstag, edited by Oliver von Criegern, Gundrun Melzer, and Johannes Schneider, 427–39. Vienna: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universität Wien, 2018.
A Gilgit manuscript A (Delhi Collection nos. 7b, 10c), edited in Kudo 2016.
B Gilgit manuscript B (Delhi Collection nos. 52c, 51c), edited in Kudo 2017.
C Gilgit manuscript C (Delhi Collection nos. 51c, 52c, 59a, 60c with fragments from the Srinagar Collection), edited in Kudo 2017.
Calcutta Thirteenth-century manuscript (B), Asiatic Society of Bengal no. 57, edited in Iwamoto 1968.
N/Nepal Seventeenth-century manuscript (C), Cambridge University Add. 1585, edited in Iwamoto 1968.
