In Śrāvastī, at Prince Jeta’s Grove, several elder monks in the Buddha’s assembly cannot agree on which human quality is most valuable and beneficial: beauty, diligence, artistry, or insight. They ask the Buddha, who replies that merit, which gives rise to all the qualities they have noted, is of most benefit to beings. To illustrate this point, he tells the story of a past life in which he was born as Puṇyabala, with four older brothers who were each named after their most prized quality: Rūpabala, Vīryavanta, Śilpavanta, and Prajñāvanta. In an ensuing contest to determine which quality produces the best outcomes in real life, Puṇyabala wins, and through his merit is granted dominion over much of the world. The Buddha then goes on to tell the story of his even earlier lifetime as Dyūtajaya, during which he developed the intention to attain buddhahood through the accumulation of merit.
This translation was produced by the Lokākṣi Translator Group: Tenzin Ringpapontsang, Ruth Gamble, John Powers, and Harmony DenRonden.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala is written in one the most recognizable literary forms in Buddhism: the Buddha’s past-life stories. These stories are usually morality tales, which highlight the positive benefits of certain actions and the detrimental results of others. This tale focuses on the benefits of accruing merit. Puṇyabala is a young prince whose store of merit is so great that he acquires untold riches and power.
Most past-life stories of the Buddha are found within two genres of Buddhist literature: avadānas and jātakas. The Sanskrit term avadāna, broadly meaning “narrative” or “tale,” denotes a type of exemplary story that is common to most Indian religious traditions. In the Buddhist context, avadāna is traditionally specified as the tenth of a twelvefold categorization of Buddhist scripture (Skt. pravacana), classified according to content, thematic structure, and literary style. Although this class of works is as varied as it is voluminous, the stories typically illustrate the results of good and bad karma, indicating how past deeds have shaped present circumstances. In this vein, many avadānas, the present one included, set out to show how the exemplary lives of the Buddha, or more often of his followers, have resulted from their meritorious deeds in past lives. Avadānas may also, in certain cases, include prophecies (Skt. vyākaraṇa) of future spiritual attainments.
Avadānas recounting past deeds generally follow a three-part narrative structure: a story from the present life of the Buddha or another protagonist, a story of an exemplary past deed, and a connecting conclusion that shows how the past protagonist and his circle were prior incarnations of the present protagonist and his circle. In this regard, avadānas bear a close relationship to jātakas (“birth stories” of the Buddha), which some scholars have justifiably considered to be a subset of the avadāna genre. One notable difference, however, is that the protagonist of an avadāna is often not the Buddha himself, as it is in most jātaka stories, but one of his followers or prospective followers.1 Another difference is that avadānas typically concern realized beings’ past human lives, not those as animals or nonhumans, as is the case in many jātaka tales. Finally, while jātaka stories had wide popular appeal, with plots, characters, and motifs drawn from pan-Indian folklore, the avadānas seem to have been originally intended primarily for monastics, as suggested by their frequent references to attendant monks, their moral tone, and their specific prescriptions for Buddhist practice that are interspersed throughout the narratives. Yet, in the course of their historical diffusion, these edifying tales of spiritual and moral achievement eventually gained wide popularity and came to inspire and educate Buddhist monastics and lay followers alike.
The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala demonstrates many of the leitmotifs of the avadāna genre. The Buddha relates an inspirational story about the benefits of making merit, and uses illustrative narratives to show how this practice underpins all rival character traits, being the only one that leads directly to spiritual attainment. Although the narrative contains some elements that would be more typical of a jātaka, such as the giving away of body parts,2 it is primarily dedicated to explaining and illustrating the primacy and far-reaching efficacy of merit-making in spiritual life and has fewer of the entertaining plot devices that enliven the jātaka versions of this story.
The central story and leading characters of The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala are found in various permutations throughout the Buddhist past-lives literature. The bare outline of the tale of the five young men, their debate over what is “best in the world” (Skt. loke anuttaraṃ in the Mahāvastu version), and their journey to a foreign land in order to test their differing theories, is shared by at least three other Buddhist texts that are each much shorter in length than the Puṇyabalāvadāna. These texts are the Puṇyavanta Jātaka, which forms a chapter of the Mahāvastu;3 a Tocharian version of the Puṇyavanta story;4 and a metric version that is included in the Bhadrakalpāvadāna.5 Apart from their shared narrative outline, these texts are not only notably different in composition and content from one another, but also from the Puṇyabalāvadāna. While the dialog and ensuing adventures of the five young men are the focus of the Puṇyabalāvadāna and of the Puṇyavanta Jātaka in the Mahāvastu, the Tocharian version devotes more than three-quarters of its content to the stories and dialogs preceding the young men’s journey, giving only seven and a half lines to their actual adventures.6
The characters also differ among these works. The protagonist in our avadāna, Puṇyabala, is named Puṇyavanta in the other works (or its equivalent Punyavaṃ in the Tocharian version) and likewise Rūpabala is Rūpavanta in the other works. Moreover, in the Mahāvastu version, the young prince’s companions are said to be ministers’ sons (Skt. amātyaputrā) who are of the same age, whereas they are referred to as princes (Tib. gzhon nu, Skt. kumāra; Tocharian mäñcuṣke) belonging to the same royal family in both the Tocharian tale and the Puṇyabalāvadāna. The concluding correspondences drawn between the past characters and their present incarnations are largely similar, except that Śilpavanta becomes one of the Buddha’s ten leading disciples, Aniruddha (Pāli Anuruddha), in the Puṇyabalāvadāna and the Tocharian tale but becomes a lesser known disciple, Rāśtrapāla (Pāli Raṭhapāla), in the Mahāvastu tale.
An interesting narrative difference between these works is that the Mahāvastu version of the exploits of Rūpavanta, Prajñāvanta, and Puṇyavanta contains erotic intrigues or escapades that are absent in the Puṇyabalāvadāna and the Tocharian tale, though the latter does describe at some length a nocturnal liaison between a painter and a maiden, as an illustration of the perils of artistry offered by the wise Prajñāvanta. In general, the Puṇyabalāvadāna gives comparatively little consideration to the feats of the other princes, which are each summarized in only a line or two and devotes far more attention than the other works to explaining and illustrating the benefits of merit-making through the lens of Puṇyabala’s life. In the Mahāvastu narrative, it is not through any meritorious deeds that Puṇyavanta earns the respect of King Brahmadatta and his ministers, but rather by generally making an agreeable impression on them, and especially by not falling prey to the sexual advances of the love-smitten princess! It is for these rather passive successes that the king rewards Puṇyavanta with the princess’s hand in marriage and makes him heir to the throne. In the Puṇyabalāvadāna, by contrast, it is only through a series of arduous merit-making tasks—including living in poverty, giving wealth to the poor, giving his limbs and blood to an amputee, and making the aspiration to gain spiritual awakening so that he can liberate all beings from saṃsāra—that Puṇyabala’s efforts bear fruit. Even then, it is only upon gaining the final approval of the god Śakra, who appears in the guise of a brahmin to interrogate the young prince and ensure that his altruistic deeds have not been corrupted by any disinclination or vested interest, that Puṇyabala finally gains prosperity, kingship, and the assurance of future awakening to buddhahood.
Of the works considered, it is only the Puṇyabalāvadāna that treats the ideal of merit in systematic detail and argues for its alleged superiority over the other virtues. Significantly, the Tocharian tale devotes well over half its content to extolling insight, giving relatively short shrift to merit. The Mahāvastu story gives only cursory treatment to each of the five prized qualities and seems to be invested far more in plot developments than in ethical and didactic considerations. Taken together, all these structural and thematic differences between the versions of this story reinforce our general impression that the Puṇyabalāvadāna was primarily intended as a morality tale for a Buddhist monastic audience. It is perhaps worth noting that there are several jātaka tales featuring a King Puṇyabala who is renowned for his generosity, but these otherwise bear little resemblance to the Puṇyavanta narrative.
Let us now give a brief synopsis of The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala. Our story begins with the Buddha delivering a teaching to his disciples in Prince Jeta’s Grove about the crucial importance of generosity, the accumulation of merit, and the maintenance of discipline. The Buddha’s teaching prompts his students to debate over which human quality should be considered the most valuable quality and therefore the most worthy aim in life. Venerable Nanda argues that good looks are most valuable to humans.7 Venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa argues that it is diligence.8 Venerable Aniruddha argues that it is artistic skill, and venerable Śāriputra argues that it is insight. When they cannot resolve their disagreement, they ask the Buddha. The Buddha tells them that merit is the best human quality, as it underpins all the others. He then tells a story from one of his past lives to illustrate this claim.
He recounts a previous life as King Puṇyabala, who was the fifth of five brothers. His four older brothers each exemplify, and indeed are named after, the human qualities they consider most worthy: Rūpabala, Vīryavanta, Śilpavanta, and Prajñāvanta. It becomes clear early on that it is Puṇyabala’s inborn quality of merit, especially generosity, that makes his birth the most valuable and auspicious of the five. Indeed, his presence in his mother’s womb already attracts the veneration of the gods and all the kingdom’s residents, including the king, and causes treasures to rain down from the sky.
In the episodes of his coming of age, Prince Puṇyabala’s merit is described as closely related to his generosity; he is generous because of his merit, and his merit is, in turn, a result of his generosity. A key example of this is his compassionate act of granting food to hungry pretas who were hitherto unable to eat anything that was offered to them.
Even such acts, however, do not convince his brothers of the preeminence of merit. As a result, he eventually devises a test to see which of their qualities is the most valuable quality for humans. He suggests that they travel to a foreign land where they are unknown and test out which quality proves most beneficial to themselves and others. The other brothers agree, and all five leave home to live incognito in a distant land. After they arrive, the other brothers soon find success by virtue of their respective qualities, but they are not as successful as Puṇyabala. In fact, their varying degrees of success reflect an ascending hierarchy of the values they embody, with each being more beneficial and encompassing than the last.
Puṇyabala begins his life abroad by staying in a pauper’s house. His host quickly becomes wealthy and respected, and so does Puṇyabala. Puṇyabala then encounters a man who had given unacceptable medical advice to a rival king and was punished by amputation of all his limbs. Puṇyabala offers him his own limbs, and he uses the power of words of truth to attach his severed limbs to their new recipient. Śakra is compelled by this act to make an appearance. He demands to know if Puṇyabala regrets the action, and Puṇyabala confirms his continuing diligence in generosity by pronouncing another truth statement—which restores his arms and legs. Śakra is impressed and states that Puṇyabala will soon attain awakening.
After these acts, Puṇyabala grows increasingly wealthy and becomes the king of a neighboring land. He is then given additional kingdoms, until eventually he comes to rule most of the world. His brothers and father seek him out and acknowledge his superiority. After his death, he is reborn in Heaven of Joy and eventually takes rebirth as the Buddha.
The narrative concludes, in standard avadāna fashion, with the Buddha revealing the true identities of the characters in the story. He relates that he was Puṇyabala, the parents in the story were none other than his current parents, and Puṇyabala’s brothers were the four monks who argued over which human quality is the most valuable quality.
The Buddha continues with a further past-life story in which he had taken birth as a pauper named Dyūtajaya, who had gambled away all his money and become utterly destitute. On his way home, however, he encountered a previous buddha named Aparājita, to whom he confessed his errant ways; he aroused the mind of awakening and made an offering to Aparājita of five handfuls of cowrie shells and his upper garment. This was a paltry offering, but presumably all he could manage given his recent deprivation and, most importantly, it was made with pure intention. As a result of this pure deed, he went on to first become wealthy, then a king on earth, and eventually a king in heaven. Eventually, it was the catalyst for his rebirths as Puṇyabala and the Buddha. This final narrative serves to illustrate how any human being, even a wrongdoer, can attain the highest goals in life if he or she strives to benefit others with pure intention.
The colophon of the text states that it was translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan by the imperial-era translators Jinamitra, the Kashmiri scholar, and the Tibetan Devacandra (eighth to ninth centuries). Jinamitra was active in Tibet at the end of the eighth century or during the first decades of the ninth.9 The Puṇyabalāvadāna’s inclusion in the Denkarma Catalog shows that it was translated prior to that catalog’s compilation in 812. In this catalog, the text is grouped within the category of Hīnayāna sūtras (Tib. theg pa chung ngu’i sde).10 Indeed, its cast of characters includes only the Buddha Śākyamuni and his śrāvaka disciples (in their present and former lives), and none of the bodhisattvas who often appear in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
This text was also translated into Chinese by Dānapāla in 983, during the Northern Song Dynasty.11 However, the text of the Chinese translation does not closely match the Tibetan version of the text, and only begins partway through the narrative. It therefore seems likely that the Chinese and Tibetan translations were based on different versions of the text (or perhaps the Chinese translation was based on an incomplete source text).12 We have not consulted the Chinese translation in preparing this English translation of The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala.
Kazuo Kano has noted that a Sanskrit version of the Puṇyabalāvadāna that once belonged to the Indian scholar Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna is currently stored in the Potala Palace in Lhasa. Unfortunately, however, this text along with the many other Sanskrit and Tibetan texts in the Potala collection remain unavailable to scholars at this time.13
The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala has not previously been translated into any Western language. In producing the present English translation, we based our work primarily on the Tibetan edition found in the Degé Kangyur, but consulted variant readings in the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace manuscript edition.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was staying in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. At that time, the Blessed One said to the monks, “Monks, when certain foolish men possess three traits at odds with the sacred Dharma, they do not practice generosity, do not engage in merit, and do not maintain discipline after taking it on. What are these three traits? They are attachment, miserliness, and carelessness.
“Monks, because some foolish men possess these three traits at odds with the sacred Dharma, they do not practice generosity, do not engage in merit, and do not[F.2.a] maintain discipline after taking it on. As a result, when their bodies fail and they die, they will fall into lower realms and be reborn in the hell realms.
“Monks, those worthy people who have three qualities of the sacred Dharma practice generosity, engage in merit, and maintain discipline after taking it on. What are these three qualities? They are nonattachment, freedom from the stain of miserliness, and conscientiousness. Monks, those sublime beings who have these three qualities will practice generosity, engage in merit, and maintain discipline after taking it on. As a result, when their bodies fail and they die, they will meet happy destinies and take birth in the higher realms, among the gods.”
These words were proclaimed by the Blessed One. After the Well-Gone One had said these words, he, the Teacher, went on to say this:
After speaking thus, the Blessed One rose from his seat and proceeded toward a dense forest. He stayed in the dense forest for the day, sitting beneath a tree.
During that time, many monks gathered in the assembly hall and took their seats. The elders began to discuss the issue of the most valuable quality of human beings.17 Among those seated in the assembly were the Blessed One’s cousin, his aunt’s son, venerable Nanda, along with venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa,[F.3.a] venerable Aniruddha, and venerable Śāriputra.
At this point, venerable Nanda said, “Venerable ones, good looks are the most valuable quality of humans.”
Venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa said, “Venerable ones, diligence is the most valuable quality of humans.”
Venerable Aniruddha said, “Venerable ones, being skilled in arts and crafts18 is the most valuable quality of humans.”
And venerable Śāriputra said, “Venerable ones, insight is the most valuable quality of humans.”
They then said, “Venerable ones, since we have all understood things differently and cannot come to an agreement, we must go to the Blessed One and report our disagreement to him. We will accept whatever the Blessed One tells us.”
The venerable ones then praised the Blessed One:
Having spoken thus, many of the monks made arrangements to go see the Blessed One. On this occasion that the Blessed One had settled in the dense forest to spend the day there, many monks of the saṅgha19 had meanwhile gathered and taken their seats in the assembly hall. At this time, he heard with his unhindered, superhuman, pure, divine ears what they had said.[F.3.b] He then rose from his meditative absorption and returned to the assembly hall. Once there, he took his seat on the mat that was set out for him in the center of the assembly. When he was seated, the Blessed One asked the monks, “Monks, you are all gathered and seated here in the assembly hall. What have you been discussing? What topic of discussion has presently brought you to gather and be seated here?”
They responded, “Honorable One, with many monks gathered in the assembly hall, the venerable ones have been discussing the issue of the most valuable quality of human beings. Venerable Nanda said, ‘Venerable ones, good looks are the most valuable quality of humans.’ Venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa said, ‘Venerable ones, diligence is the most valuable quality of humans.’ Venerable Aniruddha said, ‘Venerable ones, being skilled in arts and crafts is the most valuable quality of humans.’ And venerable Śāriputra said, ‘Venerable ones, insight alone is the most valuable quality of humans.’ Honorable One, this is how we deliberated about the matter. Since we venerable ones were all in disagreement, and each saw things differently, we decided to come before the Blessed One and ask about this very issue. We resolved to accept whatever advice the Blessed One gives us. Honorable One, this is what we, the many monks gathered and seated in the assembly hall, discussed. This is the topic of discussion that has brought us to assemble and take our seats here.”
Following their query, the Blessed One replied with the following verse:
After uttering this, the Blessed One said to the monks, “Monks, those things you understood to be the most valuable qualities are only of limited duration; they are not the most valuable qualities for all beings and all occasions. Merit, however, is the most valuable quality for all living beings on all occasions. Monks, in truth, I have not observed a single thing that is a more valuable quality than merit. Monks, to explain why, I will tell you a story.”
“Once upon a time, a king named Bright Power ruled from his capital city. During his reign, the kingdom became more prosperous, expansive, and pleasant. It had good harvests, and it was filled with a large population of creatures and humans. The king’s wife was named Queen Vibhūṣitā. She had a lovely figure and was beautiful, most pleasing to the eye. Some time later, he frolicked and enjoyed himself with Queen Vibhūṣitā, and they made love. From this playing, pleasuring, and lovemaking, a son was born.
Their son also had a lovely figure. He was beautiful and pleasing to the eye. His complexion surpassed that of humans but did not quite equal that of the gods. At his birth, a celebratory ceremony was arranged, and on this occasion he was given the name Rūpabala. Later, three more sons were born. They were named Vīryavanta, Śilpavanta, and Prajñāvanta.
“After some time, Queen Vibhūṣitā again became pregnant with another son. On the day of this child’s conception, gold of various hues suddenly rained down around the palace. Furthermore, a large divine canopy decorated with various precious jewels appeared above the queen’s head. When King Bright Power saw these miraculous occurrences, he was amazed and asked the astrologers, ‘Ah! What is this unprecedented miracle?’ The astrologers replied, ‘Lord,[F.4.b] this son your queen has conceived is one who will be renowned for his great merit, which is the power of this being.’ When the king heard this, he was utterly astonished.
“Shortly thereafter, a wish arose in the queen’s mind, and she beseeched the king, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I could be seated on a lion throne, with a white umbrella above me and a yak-tail fan with a jewel-encrusted handle?’ Thereupon, the king’s mind was filled with joy. He did just as she wished and ordered that the city be lavishly decorated. Thus, he ordered that everything be done just as she requested, and nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, another wish arose in her mind, and she beseeched the king, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were seated on a pile of gold and silver and could then make offerings with my own hands, thus making merit and providing wealth to those who lack wealth?’ The king agreed to this. After the king did just as she had requested, nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, another wish arose in her mind: ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were to release all the prisoners?’ In order to fulfill the wish she had conceived, the king released all the prisoners, and nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, yet another wish arose in her mind: ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were to behold parks?’ At this, the king fulfilled her wish by letting her behold the beautiful parks, and nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, still another wish arose in her mind. She beseeched the king, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were to speak words of truth before a crowd of people? And if, while seated on a divine lion throne because of the karmic ripening of the merit I possess, I could teach the Dharma to many people? And if, following my teaching, some miracles would occur and the gods would immediately make offerings to me?’[F.5.a]
“The king then ordered that the queen’s chamber and the wider city be beautified. All the city’s many residents gathered, attired themselves in clean apparel, adorned themselves with ornaments, and held incense, garlands, and perfume in their hands. Goddess-like, Queen Vibhūṣitā entered the crowd, wearing an assortment of ornaments, surrounded by her female retinue, and captivating people’s eyes and hearts. Placing her mind in a state of love that encompassed all sentient beings, she gazed at the sky and spoke this verse, whose truth was a spiritual blessing:
“As soon as she uttered those words, the gods who displayed the power of merit instantaneously offered her a magical lion throne, and divine flowers began to rain down. When they saw this amazing magical display, which aroused joy in gods and humans, the crowds of people were astonished. ‘Ah! How powerful is this merit!’ they said in unison. ‘Even the gods who are worshiped in all worlds are summoned by the power of merit and must listen to the humans’ commands! How marvelous it is!’
“At this point, Queen Vibhūṣitā was overjoyed. She ascended the throne without hesitation and took her seat. As soon as the queen sat on the throne, the earth shook in six different ways, and the lion throne rose from the ground and ascended into the sky, reaching the height of seven humans. Next, a divine canopy decorated with various precious jewels appeared over the lion throne. Because the crowd of people saw the power of merit, their minds were delighted, and they liberally offered incense, garlands, and perfume to the queen. They folded their hands out of respect,[F.5.b] sat in front of her and listened to her words with humbled minds. When King Bright Power likewise saw the astonishing power of merit, he was overjoyed, and together with his retinue, he sat down with folded hands. Then Queen Vibhūṣitā recited a verse that had never before been heard:
“As soon as she uttered these verses, a voice came from the sky, ‘Very well said!’ The sound of divine music could be heard, and a great shower of highly ornate divine garments rained down. Upon hearing this verse, King Bright Power and the crowd of people were filled with joy. The gods present in the sky removed the robes and ornaments from their bodies without hesitation and draped them over Queen Vibhūṣitā and her lion throne. In unison they uttered the words, ‘Well said! Well said!’
“After the queen had slowly descended from the lion throne and was seated on the ground, the sounds of divine music faded, but the sounds of human music continued to resound. The king and the crowd of people jubilantly paid great honor to the queen and escorted her back to her chambers. Once the queen had gone inside, the lion throne disappeared. The crowd saw the efficacy of merit, and their minds were filled with pure joy. They said in unison, ‘Ah! This is the greatness of merit! Ah! This is the sweet fruit of merit!’
“Thereafter, nothing that the queen had wished for was left unfulfilled. Sometime later, after nine months had elapsed, Queen Vibhūṣitā gave birth to a son at daybreak.[F.6.a] The newborn had a beautiful appearance and was pleasing to the eye and lovely. At this time, the earth shook in six different ways, and from the sky a great shower of seven kinds of precious substances rained down on the queen’s chambers. Various sorts of garments rained down on everyone around the king’s palace. And everywhere in that kingdom, supreme, beautiful, divine flowers showered down. Flowering trees produced flowers, and fruiting trees produced fruit. Gentle rain showers fell everywhere. Fresh breezes wafted in from the four directions.
“The Four Great Kings spontaneously offered a bejeweled lion throne and a wish-fulfilling tree in the presence of the newborn child. Śakra, lord of the gods, held in his own hands fine fabrics, and he held an eight-spoked divine umbrella and a golden-handled yak-tail fan over the boy. Above him, the gods of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three unfurled canopies of divine fabric. Some tossed precious gems, some tossed ornaments, some tossed garments, some tossed flowers, and some tossed powders. Some tossed perfumes, garlands, and ointments. Some played exquisite divine music.
“The god Viśvakarma, the architect of the gods, cleared the city of rocks, gravel, and pebbles, and strung up many cloth tassels. He also erected victory banners and flags, sprinkled sandalwood water, hung censers containing sweet-smelling incense, and scattered assorted flowers everywhere. When he had finished, the city was as attractive as the gods’ pleasure garden, called Park of Delights.
“A hundred of the finest elephants freely came from the dense jungles and arrayed themselves in formation. A hundred mares and their foals followed. All the crops ripened marvelously without any plowing or planting.[F.6.b] Below this lion throne and facing it were five treasuries filled to the brim with all kinds of jewels, which were never depleted no matter how many were taken from them. In that moment, even animals that are natural enemies20 regarded each other with loving hearts.
“The boy had magical and extraordinary powers. Immediately after being born, he was instantly able to remember his past lives. Looking in the four directions, he recited a verse:
“Thereby, the mind of a magical and exceedingly powerful god who lived in the sky became overjoyed upon witnessing this exceptionally wondrous and delightful display of merit. To teach the greatness of this merit, at that time he uttered this verse:
“After witnessing such splendor, the king, the queen’s retinue, the princes, ministers, courtiers, and other people in the area were wide-eyed with amazement. In this state of utter astonishment, they exclaimed, ‘Ah! The power of the boy’s merit! Ah! Even though he’s human, the boy’s merit is so renowned that he receives abundant wealth like that of gods! How wonderful!’
“The king, overjoyed and delighted, issued an order to his treasurers. Heeding his command, they amassed heaps of gold and silver in the king’s courtyard, and then gave gifts, thus accruing merit. Many poor people became rich, and a short time later, the king’s wealth increased even more. A big celebration was held to mark the prince’s birth[F.7.a] and give him a name. The king asked, ‘What should the prince’s name be?’ The ministers replied, ‘Lord, since this boy has enormous power of merit, and because at his birth he has accrued wealth like that of the gods, the prince’s name should be Puṇyabala.’ Thus, he was named Puṇyabala.
From then on, Prince Puṇyabala had eight nurses assigned to him: two women to hold him, two wet nurses, two women to bathe him, and two women to play with him. These eight women fed him milk, yogurt, butter, ghee, and cream, and they raised him with great care and affection. He blossomed like a lotus in a pond.
“When he grew older, he was instructed in letters and perfected his reading and writing. He perfected the five sets of royal skills. Furthermore, Prince Puṇyabala had great faith, and he was virtuous and goodhearted. He worked for the benefit of himself and others. He was compassionate and a great being, someone who sought the Dharma, loved all beings, longed to make offerings, loved to give, took great joy in generosity, and gave away everything. He gave prodigiously without attachment. He was committed to great generosity.
“He begrudged nothing—not even his own flesh—to ascetics, brahmins, the poor, the suffering, and the destitute. There was nothing he would not give away prodigiously. When beggars came to him for alms, he maintained a loving heart toward them. Looking at the sky, he would generate the intention, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if whatever they desired—gold, silver, fabric, food, meals, drink, or bedding—were to come to me from the sky!’[F.7.b] When he generated such an intention, whatever they desired would come forth, but none of them understood the reason. The beggars returned home with their desires thoroughly fulfilled by these goods. Because of the prince’s fame, he was extolled throughout Jambudvīpa, from all the netherworlds of the nāgas up to the celestial realms of Brahmā.
“After some time, Prince Puṇyabala set out on an excursion to the Pleasure Garden of Supreme Wealth, together with his four older brothers. On their way, they were encircled by many thousands of begging pretas with mouths21 like needles and stomachs like Mount Sumeru. They were like standing skeletons, their bodies ablaze, venerating him with hands together. No one other than Prince Puṇyabala could see the pretas. At this point, the pretas spoke to Prince Puṇyabala saying, ‘Oh Prince, you are well-known for your great merit. If you are indeed compassionate, please give to us who are so hungry and thirsty for food and drink. Previously, we were overpowered by miserliness, and thus we have now been born in the preta realm. Because of this, in this realm not only have we not found any water for many hundreds of years, but we have also not seen any kind of food.’
“After they said this, Prince Puṇyabala’s mind was greatly moved by compassion. In sorrow, he gazed at the sky and gave rise to the thought, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I received divine food and drink!’ Instantly, divine food and drink came from the sky. Prince Puṇyabala then gave the hungry and thirsty pretas the divine food and drink, in order to satisfy them. But for a while, due to the faults of their past karma, they were unable to see the food and drink. Thus they exclaimed, ‘Oh Prince, you are renowned as a compassionate person,[F.8.a] so why have you not satisfied us?’
“The prince responded, ‘I have provided you with abundant divine food and drink. What is wrong with this food and drink that you have not eaten or drunk it yet?’
“The pretas said to him, ‘Oh Prince, we cannot see the divine food and drink because of the faults of our past karma.’
“Upset, Prince Puṇyabala then thought, ‘Alas! This is due to the influence of miserliness.’ His heart filled with love for the pretas, and he expressed an aspiration: ‘If merit has power, may the power of that truth and the truth of these words allow these pretas to see this divine food and drink as it really is,22 and may they have the ability to consume it.’
“At the very moment the prince uttered these words, they no longer perceived things erroneously, and their mouths became normal. Thus, Prince Puṇyabala was exceedingly happy that he had been able to satiate the pretas with the divine food and drink. But as they received food and drink unlike any they had ever tasted, due to the power of their utterly unbearable hunger and thirst, the pretas consumed too much, and their stomachs burst. Nevertheless, because they died with minds full of appreciation for Prince Puṇyabala, they were born among the league of the gods of Heaven of Joy. Thereupon, they proclaimed, ‘Prince Puṇyabala, because you caused us to manifest among the league of the gods of Heaven of Joy, let us rejoice! Now, relying only on you, we will become generous and create merit.’ At this, Prince Puṇyabala felt overjoyed and said, ‘How wonderful!’ He then continued on his way to the pleasure garden.
“When he and the others23 arrived at the pleasure garden, they began to confer24 and try to gain certainty about the important subject of what is the most valuable quality of human beings. His brother the good-looking prince25 said, ‘What is the point of this question? Even[F.8.b] common people know that good looks are the most valuable quality of humans. Why? When they see someone with good looks, even if they have never seen this person before, they are overjoyed—even those who were not joyful before. Even the sages of the past proclaimed that attaining good looks is fully half of what is to be attained. Moreover, just observe that when people see someone with good looks, they are gladdened by merely beholding this person. From their hearts, they treat this person with respect, just like the best people treat the supreme Dharma.’
“When the diligent one heard the words of the good-looking prince, he said, ‘But what are you going to do with these good looks? Diligence alone is the most valuable quality of humans. Why? If you have good looks but lack diligence, no desirable results will appear or be heard of, either at present or in future lives. So to say that good looks are the most valuable quality will only confuse childish, ordinary26 beings. Diligence produces desirable results in this very life. Consider that such things as farmers’ crops, merchants’ wealth, servants’ sustenance, superior men’s understanding of scriptures, and meditators’ attainments of the fruits of meditation all appear in this life as the desirable fruits of diligence. Diligence also produces fruits in future lives: such things as the higher realms, vast resources, and the attainment of liberation also appear in future lives as the fruits of diligence. Moreover, diligence serves as the basis of all good qualities, and it overcomes harm. Nothing is harder to attain than diligence.’
“When the artistic one heard this, he laughed and said,[F.9.a] ‘My mind is unsettled by what you have said, even though you are right in many respects. Why is this? Because I have never seen anyone achieve any results through diligence without artistry. This is because I have observed that those with artistry achieve results. Therefore, artistry alone is the most valuable quality of humans. Moreover, even low-born artisans are certainly respected by kings, ministers, brahmins, and householders.
“After Śilpavanta said this, the wise one gave a little chuckle and said, ‘Nothing is a more valuable quality for humans than insight—neither good looks, nor diligence, nor artistry is as useful. Why? Those with impaired insight may be handsome, but their attractiveness27 is conditional. They may be diligent, but without insight they will not achieve their goals. And without insight, they cannot learn a craft.28 Therefore, insight alone accomplishes all goals, and it is the most valuable quality of humans.
“After Prajñāvanta said this, Prince Puṇyabala smiled. When he spoke, it was as if the power of merit itself flowed from his mouth: ‘Without insight, all these things—good looks, artistry, and diligence—are not valuable qualities. But those who have accomplished them by way of insight receive their associated fruits and reap their benefits. This is plainly true. Yet you cannot acquire insight without merit; and therefore, merit alone is the most valuable quality of humans. Merit is the one fundamental source[F.9.b] of the goals of attractiveness, honorableness, delightfulness, pleasantness, and congeniality. I cannot even begin to describe the full extent of merit’s positive qualities, but to give you an inkling of them, let me at least explain a mere fraction of merit’s positive qualities. Listen!
“Thus spoke Prince Puṇyabala. But because of their biased perspectives, the others did not accept his words. So Puṇyabala spoke to them again:[F.10.b] ‘Hey! Come now! Let’s go to a faraway land, dressed in disguise. That way, we can learn which is the most valuable quality of humans: good looks, diligence, artistry, insight, or merit.’
“The other princes agreed to Puṇyabala’s proposal, exclaiming, ‘Let’s do it!’ Thus, without hesitating or even telling their father, they set out for a faraway kingdom in another land, and entered the realm of a different king, dressed in disguise.
“When people saw the good-looking one, they gathered around him because he was so attractive, and he was able to live solely on the wealth they gave him. The diligent one saw a strong, swift, and deep river that was terrifying even to look at,29 and which had swept away a large sandalwood tree. Through the great power of his diligence, he was able to haul out that large sandalwood tree that others were not able to salvage, and he made a living selling it. He became wealthy from this endeavor. The artistic one made his living by creating crafts and became wealthy by this trade. The wise one skillfully negotiated a settlement of a longstanding rivalry between two merchants. This pleased the two businessmen so much that they paid him enough to live comfortably.
In Śrāvastī, at Prince Jeta’s Grove, several elder monks in the Buddha’s assembly cannot agree on which human quality is most valuable and beneficial: beauty, diligence, artistry, or insight. They ask the Buddha, who replies that merit, which gives rise to all the qualities they have noted, is of most benefit to beings. To illustrate this point, he tells the story of a past life in which he was born as Puṇyabala, with four older brothers who were each named after their most prized quality: Rūpabala, Vīryavanta, Śilpavanta, and Prajñāvanta. In an ensuing contest to determine which quality produces the best outcomes in real life, Puṇyabala wins, and through his merit is granted dominion over much of the world. The Buddha then goes on to tell the story of his even earlier lifetime as Dyūtajaya, during which he developed the intention to attain buddhahood through the accumulation of merit.
This translation was produced by the Lokākṣi Translator Group: Tenzin Ringpapontsang, Ruth Gamble, John Powers, and Harmony DenRonden.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala is written in one the most recognizable literary forms in Buddhism: the Buddha’s past-life stories. These stories are usually morality tales, which highlight the positive benefits of certain actions and the detrimental results of others. This tale focuses on the benefits of accruing merit. Puṇyabala is a young prince whose store of merit is so great that he acquires untold riches and power.
Most past-life stories of the Buddha are found within two genres of Buddhist literature: avadānas and jātakas. The Sanskrit term avadāna, broadly meaning “narrative” or “tale,” denotes a type of exemplary story that is common to most Indian religious traditions. In the Buddhist context, avadāna is traditionally specified as the tenth of a twelvefold categorization of Buddhist scripture (Skt. pravacana), classified according to content, thematic structure, and literary style. Although this class of works is as varied as it is voluminous, the stories typically illustrate the results of good and bad karma, indicating how past deeds have shaped present circumstances. In this vein, many avadānas, the present one included, set out to show how the exemplary lives of the Buddha, or more often of his followers, have resulted from their meritorious deeds in past lives. Avadānas may also, in certain cases, include prophecies (Skt. vyākaraṇa) of future spiritual attainments.
Avadānas recounting past deeds generally follow a three-part narrative structure: a story from the present life of the Buddha or another protagonist, a story of an exemplary past deed, and a connecting conclusion that shows how the past protagonist and his circle were prior incarnations of the present protagonist and his circle. In this regard, avadānas bear a close relationship to jātakas (“birth stories” of the Buddha), which some scholars have justifiably considered to be a subset of the avadāna genre. One notable difference, however, is that the protagonist of an avadāna is often not the Buddha himself, as it is in most jātaka stories, but one of his followers or prospective followers.1 Another difference is that avadānas typically concern realized beings’ past human lives, not those as animals or nonhumans, as is the case in many jātaka tales. Finally, while jātaka stories had wide popular appeal, with plots, characters, and motifs drawn from pan-Indian folklore, the avadānas seem to have been originally intended primarily for monastics, as suggested by their frequent references to attendant monks, their moral tone, and their specific prescriptions for Buddhist practice that are interspersed throughout the narratives. Yet, in the course of their historical diffusion, these edifying tales of spiritual and moral achievement eventually gained wide popularity and came to inspire and educate Buddhist monastics and lay followers alike.
The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala demonstrates many of the leitmotifs of the avadāna genre. The Buddha relates an inspirational story about the benefits of making merit, and uses illustrative narratives to show how this practice underpins all rival character traits, being the only one that leads directly to spiritual attainment. Although the narrative contains some elements that would be more typical of a jātaka, such as the giving away of body parts,2 it is primarily dedicated to explaining and illustrating the primacy and far-reaching efficacy of merit-making in spiritual life and has fewer of the entertaining plot devices that enliven the jātaka versions of this story.
The central story and leading characters of The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala are found in various permutations throughout the Buddhist past-lives literature. The bare outline of the tale of the five young men, their debate over what is “best in the world” (Skt. loke anuttaraṃ in the Mahāvastu version), and their journey to a foreign land in order to test their differing theories, is shared by at least three other Buddhist texts that are each much shorter in length than the Puṇyabalāvadāna. These texts are the Puṇyavanta Jātaka, which forms a chapter of the Mahāvastu;3 a Tocharian version of the Puṇyavanta story;4 and a metric version that is included in the Bhadrakalpāvadāna.5 Apart from their shared narrative outline, these texts are not only notably different in composition and content from one another, but also from the Puṇyabalāvadāna. While the dialog and ensuing adventures of the five young men are the focus of the Puṇyabalāvadāna and of the Puṇyavanta Jātaka in the Mahāvastu, the Tocharian version devotes more than three-quarters of its content to the stories and dialogs preceding the young men’s journey, giving only seven and a half lines to their actual adventures.6
The characters also differ among these works. The protagonist in our avadāna, Puṇyabala, is named Puṇyavanta in the other works (or its equivalent Punyavaṃ in the Tocharian version) and likewise Rūpabala is Rūpavanta in the other works. Moreover, in the Mahāvastu version, the young prince’s companions are said to be ministers’ sons (Skt. amātyaputrā) who are of the same age, whereas they are referred to as princes (Tib. gzhon nu, Skt. kumāra; Tocharian mäñcuṣke) belonging to the same royal family in both the Tocharian tale and the Puṇyabalāvadāna. The concluding correspondences drawn between the past characters and their present incarnations are largely similar, except that Śilpavanta becomes one of the Buddha’s ten leading disciples, Aniruddha (Pāli Anuruddha), in the Puṇyabalāvadāna and the Tocharian tale but becomes a lesser known disciple, Rāśtrapāla (Pāli Raṭhapāla), in the Mahāvastu tale.
An interesting narrative difference between these works is that the Mahāvastu version of the exploits of Rūpavanta, Prajñāvanta, and Puṇyavanta contains erotic intrigues or escapades that are absent in the Puṇyabalāvadāna and the Tocharian tale, though the latter does describe at some length a nocturnal liaison between a painter and a maiden, as an illustration of the perils of artistry offered by the wise Prajñāvanta. In general, the Puṇyabalāvadāna gives comparatively little consideration to the feats of the other princes, which are each summarized in only a line or two and devotes far more attention than the other works to explaining and illustrating the benefits of merit-making through the lens of Puṇyabala’s life. In the Mahāvastu narrative, it is not through any meritorious deeds that Puṇyavanta earns the respect of King Brahmadatta and his ministers, but rather by generally making an agreeable impression on them, and especially by not falling prey to the sexual advances of the love-smitten princess! It is for these rather passive successes that the king rewards Puṇyavanta with the princess’s hand in marriage and makes him heir to the throne. In the Puṇyabalāvadāna, by contrast, it is only through a series of arduous merit-making tasks—including living in poverty, giving wealth to the poor, giving his limbs and blood to an amputee, and making the aspiration to gain spiritual awakening so that he can liberate all beings from saṃsāra—that Puṇyabala’s efforts bear fruit. Even then, it is only upon gaining the final approval of the god Śakra, who appears in the guise of a brahmin to interrogate the young prince and ensure that his altruistic deeds have not been corrupted by any disinclination or vested interest, that Puṇyabala finally gains prosperity, kingship, and the assurance of future awakening to buddhahood.
Of the works considered, it is only the Puṇyabalāvadāna that treats the ideal of merit in systematic detail and argues for its alleged superiority over the other virtues. Significantly, the Tocharian tale devotes well over half its content to extolling insight, giving relatively short shrift to merit. The Mahāvastu story gives only cursory treatment to each of the five prized qualities and seems to be invested far more in plot developments than in ethical and didactic considerations. Taken together, all these structural and thematic differences between the versions of this story reinforce our general impression that the Puṇyabalāvadāna was primarily intended as a morality tale for a Buddhist monastic audience. It is perhaps worth noting that there are several jātaka tales featuring a King Puṇyabala who is renowned for his generosity, but these otherwise bear little resemblance to the Puṇyavanta narrative.
Let us now give a brief synopsis of The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala. Our story begins with the Buddha delivering a teaching to his disciples in Prince Jeta’s Grove about the crucial importance of generosity, the accumulation of merit, and the maintenance of discipline. The Buddha’s teaching prompts his students to debate over which human quality should be considered the most valuable quality and therefore the most worthy aim in life. Venerable Nanda argues that good looks are most valuable to humans.7 Venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa argues that it is diligence.8 Venerable Aniruddha argues that it is artistic skill, and venerable Śāriputra argues that it is insight. When they cannot resolve their disagreement, they ask the Buddha. The Buddha tells them that merit is the best human quality, as it underpins all the others. He then tells a story from one of his past lives to illustrate this claim.
He recounts a previous life as King Puṇyabala, who was the fifth of five brothers. His four older brothers each exemplify, and indeed are named after, the human qualities they consider most worthy: Rūpabala, Vīryavanta, Śilpavanta, and Prajñāvanta. It becomes clear early on that it is Puṇyabala’s inborn quality of merit, especially generosity, that makes his birth the most valuable and auspicious of the five. Indeed, his presence in his mother’s womb already attracts the veneration of the gods and all the kingdom’s residents, including the king, and causes treasures to rain down from the sky.
In the episodes of his coming of age, Prince Puṇyabala’s merit is described as closely related to his generosity; he is generous because of his merit, and his merit is, in turn, a result of his generosity. A key example of this is his compassionate act of granting food to hungry pretas who were hitherto unable to eat anything that was offered to them.
Even such acts, however, do not convince his brothers of the preeminence of merit. As a result, he eventually devises a test to see which of their qualities is the most valuable quality for humans. He suggests that they travel to a foreign land where they are unknown and test out which quality proves most beneficial to themselves and others. The other brothers agree, and all five leave home to live incognito in a distant land. After they arrive, the other brothers soon find success by virtue of their respective qualities, but they are not as successful as Puṇyabala. In fact, their varying degrees of success reflect an ascending hierarchy of the values they embody, with each being more beneficial and encompassing than the last.
Puṇyabala begins his life abroad by staying in a pauper’s house. His host quickly becomes wealthy and respected, and so does Puṇyabala. Puṇyabala then encounters a man who had given unacceptable medical advice to a rival king and was punished by amputation of all his limbs. Puṇyabala offers him his own limbs, and he uses the power of words of truth to attach his severed limbs to their new recipient. Śakra is compelled by this act to make an appearance. He demands to know if Puṇyabala regrets the action, and Puṇyabala confirms his continuing diligence in generosity by pronouncing another truth statement—which restores his arms and legs. Śakra is impressed and states that Puṇyabala will soon attain awakening.
After these acts, Puṇyabala grows increasingly wealthy and becomes the king of a neighboring land. He is then given additional kingdoms, until eventually he comes to rule most of the world. His brothers and father seek him out and acknowledge his superiority. After his death, he is reborn in Heaven of Joy and eventually takes rebirth as the Buddha.
The narrative concludes, in standard avadāna fashion, with the Buddha revealing the true identities of the characters in the story. He relates that he was Puṇyabala, the parents in the story were none other than his current parents, and Puṇyabala’s brothers were the four monks who argued over which human quality is the most valuable quality.
The Buddha continues with a further past-life story in which he had taken birth as a pauper named Dyūtajaya, who had gambled away all his money and become utterly destitute. On his way home, however, he encountered a previous buddha named Aparājita, to whom he confessed his errant ways; he aroused the mind of awakening and made an offering to Aparājita of five handfuls of cowrie shells and his upper garment. This was a paltry offering, but presumably all he could manage given his recent deprivation and, most importantly, it was made with pure intention. As a result of this pure deed, he went on to first become wealthy, then a king on earth, and eventually a king in heaven. Eventually, it was the catalyst for his rebirths as Puṇyabala and the Buddha. This final narrative serves to illustrate how any human being, even a wrongdoer, can attain the highest goals in life if he or she strives to benefit others with pure intention.
The colophon of the text states that it was translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan by the imperial-era translators Jinamitra, the Kashmiri scholar, and the Tibetan Devacandra (eighth to ninth centuries). Jinamitra was active in Tibet at the end of the eighth century or during the first decades of the ninth.9 The Puṇyabalāvadāna’s inclusion in the Denkarma Catalog shows that it was translated prior to that catalog’s compilation in 812. In this catalog, the text is grouped within the category of Hīnayāna sūtras (Tib. theg pa chung ngu’i sde).10 Indeed, its cast of characters includes only the Buddha Śākyamuni and his śrāvaka disciples (in their present and former lives), and none of the bodhisattvas who often appear in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
This text was also translated into Chinese by Dānapāla in 983, during the Northern Song Dynasty.11 However, the text of the Chinese translation does not closely match the Tibetan version of the text, and only begins partway through the narrative. It therefore seems likely that the Chinese and Tibetan translations were based on different versions of the text (or perhaps the Chinese translation was based on an incomplete source text).12 We have not consulted the Chinese translation in preparing this English translation of The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala.
Kazuo Kano has noted that a Sanskrit version of the Puṇyabalāvadāna that once belonged to the Indian scholar Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna is currently stored in the Potala Palace in Lhasa. Unfortunately, however, this text along with the many other Sanskrit and Tibetan texts in the Potala collection remain unavailable to scholars at this time.13
The Exemplary Tale of Puṇyabala has not previously been translated into any Western language. In producing the present English translation, we based our work primarily on the Tibetan edition found in the Degé Kangyur, but consulted variant readings in the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace manuscript edition.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was staying in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. At that time, the Blessed One said to the monks, “Monks, when certain foolish men possess three traits at odds with the sacred Dharma, they do not practice generosity, do not engage in merit, and do not maintain discipline after taking it on. What are these three traits? They are attachment, miserliness, and carelessness.
“Monks, because some foolish men possess these three traits at odds with the sacred Dharma, they do not practice generosity, do not engage in merit, and do not[F.2.a] maintain discipline after taking it on. As a result, when their bodies fail and they die, they will fall into lower realms and be reborn in the hell realms.
“Monks, those worthy people who have three qualities of the sacred Dharma practice generosity, engage in merit, and maintain discipline after taking it on. What are these three qualities? They are nonattachment, freedom from the stain of miserliness, and conscientiousness. Monks, those sublime beings who have these three qualities will practice generosity, engage in merit, and maintain discipline after taking it on. As a result, when their bodies fail and they die, they will meet happy destinies and take birth in the higher realms, among the gods.”
These words were proclaimed by the Blessed One. After the Well-Gone One had said these words, he, the Teacher, went on to say this:
After speaking thus, the Blessed One rose from his seat and proceeded toward a dense forest. He stayed in the dense forest for the day, sitting beneath a tree.
During that time, many monks gathered in the assembly hall and took their seats. The elders began to discuss the issue of the most valuable quality of human beings.17 Among those seated in the assembly were the Blessed One’s cousin, his aunt’s son, venerable Nanda, along with venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa,[F.3.a] venerable Aniruddha, and venerable Śāriputra.
At this point, venerable Nanda said, “Venerable ones, good looks are the most valuable quality of humans.”
Venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa said, “Venerable ones, diligence is the most valuable quality of humans.”
Venerable Aniruddha said, “Venerable ones, being skilled in arts and crafts18 is the most valuable quality of humans.”
And venerable Śāriputra said, “Venerable ones, insight is the most valuable quality of humans.”
They then said, “Venerable ones, since we have all understood things differently and cannot come to an agreement, we must go to the Blessed One and report our disagreement to him. We will accept whatever the Blessed One tells us.”
The venerable ones then praised the Blessed One:
Having spoken thus, many of the monks made arrangements to go see the Blessed One. On this occasion that the Blessed One had settled in the dense forest to spend the day there, many monks of the saṅgha19 had meanwhile gathered and taken their seats in the assembly hall. At this time, he heard with his unhindered, superhuman, pure, divine ears what they had said.[F.3.b] He then rose from his meditative absorption and returned to the assembly hall. Once there, he took his seat on the mat that was set out for him in the center of the assembly. When he was seated, the Blessed One asked the monks, “Monks, you are all gathered and seated here in the assembly hall. What have you been discussing? What topic of discussion has presently brought you to gather and be seated here?”
They responded, “Honorable One, with many monks gathered in the assembly hall, the venerable ones have been discussing the issue of the most valuable quality of human beings. Venerable Nanda said, ‘Venerable ones, good looks are the most valuable quality of humans.’ Venerable Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa said, ‘Venerable ones, diligence is the most valuable quality of humans.’ Venerable Aniruddha said, ‘Venerable ones, being skilled in arts and crafts is the most valuable quality of humans.’ And venerable Śāriputra said, ‘Venerable ones, insight alone is the most valuable quality of humans.’ Honorable One, this is how we deliberated about the matter. Since we venerable ones were all in disagreement, and each saw things differently, we decided to come before the Blessed One and ask about this very issue. We resolved to accept whatever advice the Blessed One gives us. Honorable One, this is what we, the many monks gathered and seated in the assembly hall, discussed. This is the topic of discussion that has brought us to assemble and take our seats here.”
Following their query, the Blessed One replied with the following verse:
After uttering this, the Blessed One said to the monks, “Monks, those things you understood to be the most valuable qualities are only of limited duration; they are not the most valuable qualities for all beings and all occasions. Merit, however, is the most valuable quality for all living beings on all occasions. Monks, in truth, I have not observed a single thing that is a more valuable quality than merit. Monks, to explain why, I will tell you a story.”
“Once upon a time, a king named Bright Power ruled from his capital city. During his reign, the kingdom became more prosperous, expansive, and pleasant. It had good harvests, and it was filled with a large population of creatures and humans. The king’s wife was named Queen Vibhūṣitā. She had a lovely figure and was beautiful, most pleasing to the eye. Some time later, he frolicked and enjoyed himself with Queen Vibhūṣitā, and they made love. From this playing, pleasuring, and lovemaking, a son was born.
Their son also had a lovely figure. He was beautiful and pleasing to the eye. His complexion surpassed that of humans but did not quite equal that of the gods. At his birth, a celebratory ceremony was arranged, and on this occasion he was given the name Rūpabala. Later, three more sons were born. They were named Vīryavanta, Śilpavanta, and Prajñāvanta.
“After some time, Queen Vibhūṣitā again became pregnant with another son. On the day of this child’s conception, gold of various hues suddenly rained down around the palace. Furthermore, a large divine canopy decorated with various precious jewels appeared above the queen’s head. When King Bright Power saw these miraculous occurrences, he was amazed and asked the astrologers, ‘Ah! What is this unprecedented miracle?’ The astrologers replied, ‘Lord,[F.4.b] this son your queen has conceived is one who will be renowned for his great merit, which is the power of this being.’ When the king heard this, he was utterly astonished.
“Shortly thereafter, a wish arose in the queen’s mind, and she beseeched the king, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I could be seated on a lion throne, with a white umbrella above me and a yak-tail fan with a jewel-encrusted handle?’ Thereupon, the king’s mind was filled with joy. He did just as she wished and ordered that the city be lavishly decorated. Thus, he ordered that everything be done just as she requested, and nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, another wish arose in her mind, and she beseeched the king, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were seated on a pile of gold and silver and could then make offerings with my own hands, thus making merit and providing wealth to those who lack wealth?’ The king agreed to this. After the king did just as she had requested, nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, another wish arose in her mind: ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were to release all the prisoners?’ In order to fulfill the wish she had conceived, the king released all the prisoners, and nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, yet another wish arose in her mind: ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were to behold parks?’ At this, the king fulfilled her wish by letting her behold the beautiful parks, and nothing remained unsatisfied of the wish that had arisen in her mind.
“Later, still another wish arose in her mind. She beseeched the king, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I were to speak words of truth before a crowd of people? And if, while seated on a divine lion throne because of the karmic ripening of the merit I possess, I could teach the Dharma to many people? And if, following my teaching, some miracles would occur and the gods would immediately make offerings to me?’[F.5.a]
“The king then ordered that the queen’s chamber and the wider city be beautified. All the city’s many residents gathered, attired themselves in clean apparel, adorned themselves with ornaments, and held incense, garlands, and perfume in their hands. Goddess-like, Queen Vibhūṣitā entered the crowd, wearing an assortment of ornaments, surrounded by her female retinue, and captivating people’s eyes and hearts. Placing her mind in a state of love that encompassed all sentient beings, she gazed at the sky and spoke this verse, whose truth was a spiritual blessing:
“As soon as she uttered those words, the gods who displayed the power of merit instantaneously offered her a magical lion throne, and divine flowers began to rain down. When they saw this amazing magical display, which aroused joy in gods and humans, the crowds of people were astonished. ‘Ah! How powerful is this merit!’ they said in unison. ‘Even the gods who are worshiped in all worlds are summoned by the power of merit and must listen to the humans’ commands! How marvelous it is!’
“At this point, Queen Vibhūṣitā was overjoyed. She ascended the throne without hesitation and took her seat. As soon as the queen sat on the throne, the earth shook in six different ways, and the lion throne rose from the ground and ascended into the sky, reaching the height of seven humans. Next, a divine canopy decorated with various precious jewels appeared over the lion throne. Because the crowd of people saw the power of merit, their minds were delighted, and they liberally offered incense, garlands, and perfume to the queen. They folded their hands out of respect,[F.5.b] sat in front of her and listened to her words with humbled minds. When King Bright Power likewise saw the astonishing power of merit, he was overjoyed, and together with his retinue, he sat down with folded hands. Then Queen Vibhūṣitā recited a verse that had never before been heard:
“As soon as she uttered these verses, a voice came from the sky, ‘Very well said!’ The sound of divine music could be heard, and a great shower of highly ornate divine garments rained down. Upon hearing this verse, King Bright Power and the crowd of people were filled with joy. The gods present in the sky removed the robes and ornaments from their bodies without hesitation and draped them over Queen Vibhūṣitā and her lion throne. In unison they uttered the words, ‘Well said! Well said!’
“After the queen had slowly descended from the lion throne and was seated on the ground, the sounds of divine music faded, but the sounds of human music continued to resound. The king and the crowd of people jubilantly paid great honor to the queen and escorted her back to her chambers. Once the queen had gone inside, the lion throne disappeared. The crowd saw the efficacy of merit, and their minds were filled with pure joy. They said in unison, ‘Ah! This is the greatness of merit! Ah! This is the sweet fruit of merit!’
“Thereafter, nothing that the queen had wished for was left unfulfilled. Sometime later, after nine months had elapsed, Queen Vibhūṣitā gave birth to a son at daybreak.[F.6.a] The newborn had a beautiful appearance and was pleasing to the eye and lovely. At this time, the earth shook in six different ways, and from the sky a great shower of seven kinds of precious substances rained down on the queen’s chambers. Various sorts of garments rained down on everyone around the king’s palace. And everywhere in that kingdom, supreme, beautiful, divine flowers showered down. Flowering trees produced flowers, and fruiting trees produced fruit. Gentle rain showers fell everywhere. Fresh breezes wafted in from the four directions.
“The Four Great Kings spontaneously offered a bejeweled lion throne and a wish-fulfilling tree in the presence of the newborn child. Śakra, lord of the gods, held in his own hands fine fabrics, and he held an eight-spoked divine umbrella and a golden-handled yak-tail fan over the boy. Above him, the gods of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three unfurled canopies of divine fabric. Some tossed precious gems, some tossed ornaments, some tossed garments, some tossed flowers, and some tossed powders. Some tossed perfumes, garlands, and ointments. Some played exquisite divine music.
“The god Viśvakarma, the architect of the gods, cleared the city of rocks, gravel, and pebbles, and strung up many cloth tassels. He also erected victory banners and flags, sprinkled sandalwood water, hung censers containing sweet-smelling incense, and scattered assorted flowers everywhere. When he had finished, the city was as attractive as the gods’ pleasure garden, called Park of Delights.
“A hundred of the finest elephants freely came from the dense jungles and arrayed themselves in formation. A hundred mares and their foals followed. All the crops ripened marvelously without any plowing or planting.[F.6.b] Below this lion throne and facing it were five treasuries filled to the brim with all kinds of jewels, which were never depleted no matter how many were taken from them. In that moment, even animals that are natural enemies20 regarded each other with loving hearts.
“The boy had magical and extraordinary powers. Immediately after being born, he was instantly able to remember his past lives. Looking in the four directions, he recited a verse:
“Thereby, the mind of a magical and exceedingly powerful god who lived in the sky became overjoyed upon witnessing this exceptionally wondrous and delightful display of merit. To teach the greatness of this merit, at that time he uttered this verse:
“After witnessing such splendor, the king, the queen’s retinue, the princes, ministers, courtiers, and other people in the area were wide-eyed with amazement. In this state of utter astonishment, they exclaimed, ‘Ah! The power of the boy’s merit! Ah! Even though he’s human, the boy’s merit is so renowned that he receives abundant wealth like that of gods! How wonderful!’
“The king, overjoyed and delighted, issued an order to his treasurers. Heeding his command, they amassed heaps of gold and silver in the king’s courtyard, and then gave gifts, thus accruing merit. Many poor people became rich, and a short time later, the king’s wealth increased even more. A big celebration was held to mark the prince’s birth[F.7.a] and give him a name. The king asked, ‘What should the prince’s name be?’ The ministers replied, ‘Lord, since this boy has enormous power of merit, and because at his birth he has accrued wealth like that of the gods, the prince’s name should be Puṇyabala.’ Thus, he was named Puṇyabala.
From then on, Prince Puṇyabala had eight nurses assigned to him: two women to hold him, two wet nurses, two women to bathe him, and two women to play with him. These eight women fed him milk, yogurt, butter, ghee, and cream, and they raised him with great care and affection. He blossomed like a lotus in a pond.
“When he grew older, he was instructed in letters and perfected his reading and writing. He perfected the five sets of royal skills. Furthermore, Prince Puṇyabala had great faith, and he was virtuous and goodhearted. He worked for the benefit of himself and others. He was compassionate and a great being, someone who sought the Dharma, loved all beings, longed to make offerings, loved to give, took great joy in generosity, and gave away everything. He gave prodigiously without attachment. He was committed to great generosity.
“He begrudged nothing—not even his own flesh—to ascetics, brahmins, the poor, the suffering, and the destitute. There was nothing he would not give away prodigiously. When beggars came to him for alms, he maintained a loving heart toward them. Looking at the sky, he would generate the intention, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if whatever they desired—gold, silver, fabric, food, meals, drink, or bedding—were to come to me from the sky!’[F.7.b] When he generated such an intention, whatever they desired would come forth, but none of them understood the reason. The beggars returned home with their desires thoroughly fulfilled by these goods. Because of the prince’s fame, he was extolled throughout Jambudvīpa, from all the netherworlds of the nāgas up to the celestial realms of Brahmā.
“After some time, Prince Puṇyabala set out on an excursion to the Pleasure Garden of Supreme Wealth, together with his four older brothers. On their way, they were encircled by many thousands of begging pretas with mouths21 like needles and stomachs like Mount Sumeru. They were like standing skeletons, their bodies ablaze, venerating him with hands together. No one other than Prince Puṇyabala could see the pretas. At this point, the pretas spoke to Prince Puṇyabala saying, ‘Oh Prince, you are well-known for your great merit. If you are indeed compassionate, please give to us who are so hungry and thirsty for food and drink. Previously, we were overpowered by miserliness, and thus we have now been born in the preta realm. Because of this, in this realm not only have we not found any water for many hundreds of years, but we have also not seen any kind of food.’
“After they said this, Prince Puṇyabala’s mind was greatly moved by compassion. In sorrow, he gazed at the sky and gave rise to the thought, ‘Well now, wouldn’t it be wonderful if I received divine food and drink!’ Instantly, divine food and drink came from the sky. Prince Puṇyabala then gave the hungry and thirsty pretas the divine food and drink, in order to satisfy them. But for a while, due to the faults of their past karma, they were unable to see the food and drink. Thus they exclaimed, ‘Oh Prince, you are renowned as a compassionate person,[F.8.a] so why have you not satisfied us?’
“The prince responded, ‘I have provided you with abundant divine food and drink. What is wrong with this food and drink that you have not eaten or drunk it yet?’
“The pretas said to him, ‘Oh Prince, we cannot see the divine food and drink because of the faults of our past karma.’
“Upset, Prince Puṇyabala then thought, ‘Alas! This is due to the influence of miserliness.’ His heart filled with love for the pretas, and he expressed an aspiration: ‘If merit has power, may the power of that truth and the truth of these words allow these pretas to see this divine food and drink as it really is,22 and may they have the ability to consume it.’
“At the very moment the prince uttered these words, they no longer perceived things erroneously, and their mouths became normal. Thus, Prince Puṇyabala was exceedingly happy that he had been able to satiate the pretas with the divine food and drink. But as they received food and drink unlike any they had ever tasted, due to the power of their utterly unbearable hunger and thirst, the pretas consumed too much, and their stomachs burst. Nevertheless, because they died with minds full of appreciation for Prince Puṇyabala, they were born among the league of the gods of Heaven of Joy. Thereupon, they proclaimed, ‘Prince Puṇyabala, because you caused us to manifest among the league of the gods of Heaven of Joy, let us rejoice! Now, relying only on you, we will become generous and create merit.’ At this, Prince Puṇyabala felt overjoyed and said, ‘How wonderful!’ He then continued on his way to the pleasure garden.
“When he and the others23 arrived at the pleasure garden, they began to confer24 and try to gain certainty about the important subject of what is the most valuable quality of human beings. His brother the good-looking prince25 said, ‘What is the point of this question? Even[F.8.b] common people know that good looks are the most valuable quality of humans. Why? When they see someone with good looks, even if they have never seen this person before, they are overjoyed—even those who were not joyful before. Even the sages of the past proclaimed that attaining good looks is fully half of what is to be attained. Moreover, just observe that when people see someone with good looks, they are gladdened by merely beholding this person. From their hearts, they treat this person with respect, just like the best people treat the supreme Dharma.’
“When the diligent one heard the words of the good-looking prince, he said, ‘But what are you going to do with these good looks? Diligence alone is the most valuable quality of humans. Why? If you have good looks but lack diligence, no desirable results will appear or be heard of, either at present or in future lives. So to say that good looks are the most valuable quality will only confuse childish, ordinary26 beings. Diligence produces desirable results in this very life. Consider that such things as farmers’ crops, merchants’ wealth, servants’ sustenance, superior men’s understanding of scriptures, and meditators’ attainments of the fruits of meditation all appear in this life as the desirable fruits of diligence. Diligence also produces fruits in future lives: such things as the higher realms, vast resources, and the attainment of liberation also appear in future lives as the fruits of diligence. Moreover, diligence serves as the basis of all good qualities, and it overcomes harm. Nothing is harder to attain than diligence.’
“When the artistic one heard this, he laughed and said,[F.9.a] ‘My mind is unsettled by what you have said, even though you are right in many respects. Why is this? Because I have never seen anyone achieve any results through diligence without artistry. This is because I have observed that those with artistry achieve results. Therefore, artistry alone is the most valuable quality of humans. Moreover, even low-born artisans are certainly respected by kings, ministers, brahmins, and householders.
“After Śilpavanta said this, the wise one gave a little chuckle and said, ‘Nothing is a more valuable quality for humans than insight—neither good looks, nor diligence, nor artistry is as useful. Why? Those with impaired insight may be handsome, but their attractiveness27 is conditional. They may be diligent, but without insight they will not achieve their goals. And without insight, they cannot learn a craft.28 Therefore, insight alone accomplishes all goals, and it is the most valuable quality of humans.
“After Prajñāvanta said this, Prince Puṇyabala smiled. When he spoke, it was as if the power of merit itself flowed from his mouth: ‘Without insight, all these things—good looks, artistry, and diligence—are not valuable qualities. But those who have accomplished them by way of insight receive their associated fruits and reap their benefits. This is plainly true. Yet you cannot acquire insight without merit; and therefore, merit alone is the most valuable quality of humans. Merit is the one fundamental source[F.9.b] of the goals of attractiveness, honorableness, delightfulness, pleasantness, and congeniality. I cannot even begin to describe the full extent of merit’s positive qualities, but to give you an inkling of them, let me at least explain a mere fraction of merit’s positive qualities. Listen!
“Thus spoke Prince Puṇyabala. But because of their biased perspectives, the others did not accept his words. So Puṇyabala spoke to them again:[F.10.b] ‘Hey! Come now! Let’s go to a faraway land, dressed in disguise. That way, we can learn which is the most valuable quality of humans: good looks, diligence, artistry, insight, or merit.’
“The other princes agreed to Puṇyabala’s proposal, exclaiming, ‘Let’s do it!’ Thus, without hesitating or even telling their father, they set out for a faraway kingdom in another land, and entered the realm of a different king, dressed in disguise.
“When people saw the good-looking one, they gathered around him because he was so attractive, and he was able to live solely on the wealth they gave him. The diligent one saw a strong, swift, and deep river that was terrifying even to look at,29 and which had swept away a large sandalwood tree. Through the great power of his diligence, he was able to haul out that large sandalwood tree that others were not able to salvage, and he made a living selling it. He became wealthy from this endeavor. The artistic one made his living by creating crafts and became wealthy by this trade. The wise one skillfully negotiated a settlement of a longstanding rivalry between two merchants. This pleased the two businessmen so much that they paid him enough to live comfortably.
Jātakas typically relate stories from the Buddha’s past lives, in which the Buddha is either the protagonist of the story or a witness to other events. See Appleton 2010, pp. 3–6; and Rothenberg 1990, 4–5.
For an English translation, see Jones 1956, vol. 3, pp. 31–39. For an edited Sanskrit version, see Marciniak 2019, vol. 3, pp. 42–48
We were unable to consult any original version of this text or its Russian translation in Oldenburg 1894, but Sieg and Siegling 1921 (p. 2, n. 1) note that the version they consulted contains only a versified version of the Mahāvastu story.
The figure of Nanda in this text alludes to the Buddha’s cousin Nanda, or Sundarananda (“Handsome Nanda”), who is famed for his good looks in Buddhist literature, a notable example being Good-Looking Nanda (Saundarananda) by the philosopher-poet Aśvaghoṣa (c. 80–150
This may allude to an eponymous avadāna in which the monk Śroṇakoṭīviṃśa (Pāli: Soṇa Koḷivisa) perseveres in pursuing his goals despite numerous obstacles.
We are grateful to Laurence Zhou for making a brief comparison of the content of the Tibetan and Chinese texts.
The Stok Palace, Narthang, and Lhasa editions read min (“un-”), while the Degé edition reads byin (“give”). Our translation follows the former reading.
The Degé edition reads bdag (“self”), in contrast to Narthang and Lhasa, which read dag (the plural marker). This translation follows the latter, which appears more in line with the context.
The Peking, Yongle, Lithang, and Peking Kangxi editions read bde (“happiness”) while the Degé reads der (“there”). This translation follows the former.
There is a spelling discrepancy between the Degé edition and the other versions. In contrast to Degé’s dpen pa (“vital,” “useful,” “necessary,” “essential”), the other editions have dben pa (“devoid of”). This translation follows the former. Tib. dpen pa is an old term, which, in this context, means the same as its synonyms mkho ba, yid du ’ong ba, and phang. In its numerous occurrences in this text, the term occurs in the unusual compound nyams su dpen pa (not found elsewhere in the Kangyur or Tengyur), which seems to refer to things one wishes or values as important.
The Peking, Kangxi, and Choné editions read bzod pa (“patience”); this translation, however, follows the Degé edition and Stok Palace editions, reading bzo.
Apart from the Degé edition, which reads dge (“virtue”), all the other editions consulted read dag (the plural marker). We have followed the latter reading, which accords with the reading in a parallel phrase earlier in the Degé edition itself.
Tib. sems can phan tshun khong ba rnams, literally, “animals who [usually] hold mutual animosity.”
This part of the aspiration is crucial, because the negative karma of pretas colors their perceptions and causes them to see water as pus and blood, and food as a disgusting substance like vomit.
The Degé edition reads de nas (“and then”), but we have instead translated following the Narthang, Lhasa, and Stok Palace editions which read de dag (“they”).
The Degé edition reads glod (“release”), and the Narthang, Peking Yongle, and Peking Kangxi editions read blod (“chew”!). We have instead followed the reading from the Stok Palace edition which reads blon (“counsel,” “advise”) and understand it to refer to discussion.
The text here (and hereafter) refers to this prince as gzugs dang ldan pa (Skt. Rūpavan) rather than his proper name gzugs stobs (Skt. Rūpabala). We have taken this as a descriptor rather than a proper name and translated the references to the brothers accordingly.
The Degé edition reads byis pa skye bo (“childish beings”), but we have followed the reading from the Stok Palace edition, which reads byis pa so so’i skye bo (“childish ordinary beings”).
The Degé edition here reads ’dzem pa (“to avoid”), whereas the Narthang, Lhasa, and Stok Palace editions read mdzes pa (“beauty,” “beautiful”). In the translation we have followed the latter.
The grammar in this paragraph up to this point is unclear and the translation is therefore tentative.
The Degé edition reads mthong nas ’jigs pas, but we have followed the Stok Palace reading of mthong na ’jigs pa, which allows us to read this phrase (“terrifying even to look at”) as a modifier for the river. Both the Narthang and Lhasa editions also agree with the Stok Palace in reading ’jigs pa instead of ’jigs pas.
The Degé reads dge slong de dag (“those monks”) but this translation follows the Narthang, Lhasa, Urga, and Stok Palace editions which read dge slong dag (“Monks…”).
The Degé edition reads jo co (sic!); we have followed the Narthang, Lhasa, and Stok Palace editions which read jo bo (“lord”).
The Tibetan term grub pa dang bde ba (abbrev. grub bde) translates the Sanskrit yogakṣema, which signifies the secure possession of what has been acquired. It is generally explained as a coordinative (Skt. dvandva) compound denoting the “acquisition (Skt. yoga) and preservation (Skt. kṣema) of property.”
The Degé edition reads gzhol (“remained”), but we have followed the reading in the Narthang, Lhasa, and Stok Palace editions, which read yol (“passed”).
The Degé reads mthong na yid du ’ong zhing (“delightful to behold, and”), but this translation follows the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, and Choné editions, which read mthong na yid du ’ong ba (“delightful to behold”), giving a more grammatical reading.
The Degé edition obviously made a typo here by repeating the epithet rgyal po snang byed twice. In this translation, we have followed the Narthang and Lhasa editions, which only give the name a single time.
Apart from the Degé edition, which reads thang po, all the other versions read theng po or ’theng po, both of which mean crippled leg(s). Considering its present context, this translation follows the majority.
In contrast to the Degé edition, which reads bsod pa (“taking delight”), the Peking Kangxi edition reads bstod pa (“praise”). As the latter makes the most sense grammatically, we have followed it.
The term “results” is added for context to clarify the intended meaning of the adjective gdon mi za bar (Skt. avaśyam, “inevitable”) with respect to karma.
The Degé edition reads dang here, but we have followed the Peking Yongle, Lithang, Peking Kangxi, Narthang, Choné, Lhasa, and Stok Palace editions, which read kyang.
The Tibetan term jo bo is usually translated as “master” or “lord.” Here it is probably a translation of the Sanskrit term svāmin, which means “lord,” “master,” and “husband.” Her addressing him in this way (even after he squandered all the family’s possessions while gambling) reflects the sort of deference expected of an Indian wife toward her husband, in literature at least.
The Degé edition has ’dzin (“considered”), but according to the Lithang, Choné, Lhasa, and Stok Palace editions, it is ’dzer, which is an old way of writing zer (“said”). This translation follows the latter.
The Degé edition duplicates this name. We have followed the Narthang and Stok Palace editions, which only give the name once.
Literally “touched”; this probably refers to the tradition of a “tour of conquest” (Skt. dig-vijaya), in which a great king would establish dominion over surrounding areas by traveling to the four quarters. Wherever he was able to roam unimpededly became his domain. Ideally, this should be done through the power of his righteousness; other kings submitted to him and became his vassals in recognition of his superior moral standing.
The five aggregates of form, feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness. On the individual level, the five aggregates refer to the basis upon which the mistaken idea of a self is projected. They are referred to as the “bases for appropriation” (Skt. upādāna), insofar as all conceptual grasping arises on the basis of these aggregates.
A disciple of the Buddha.
“Not Able to Be Harmed by Others”; a previous buddha.
It refers to arts and crafts generally; in the context of this sūtra, it is also used to describe skill in arts and crafts, and has been also been rendered as such.
A showy tree (Saraca indica) of the family Leguminosae of tropical Asia that is cultivated for its orange scarlet flowers and is used to decorate temples.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
In this text, attachment is one of the three factors at odds with the true Dharma because it impedes generosity and thus destroys merit.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).
“Power of Splendor,” Puṇyabala’s father.
Not being conscientious. In this text, carelessness is one of the three factors at odds with the true Dharma because it impedes generosity and thus destroys merit.
Often translated “element,” commonly in the context of the eighteen elements of sensory experience (the six sense faculties, their six respective objects, and the six sensory consciousnesses), although the term has a wide range of other meanings. Along with the aggregates (Skt. skandha) and the sense bases (Skt. āyatana), one of the three major categories in the taxonomy of phenomena in the sūtra literature.
Enthusiasm for virtue. One of the six perfections, the seven limbs of awakening, the five abilities, the four bases of magical power, and the five powers.
“Winner at Dice,” a previous life of Prince Puṇyabala and the Buddha himself. Also called King Jaya.
In this text, it is a description of the ultimate and quasi-synonymous with nirvāṇa.
Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahārājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).
The four means of enticement are (1) generosity, (2) kind words, (3) consistency between words and deeds, and (4) helpful actions.
Effect, result, fruit.
The first of the six or ten perfections, often explained as the essential starting point and training for the practice of the others. In this text, it exemplifies merit, the most prized quality of human beings.
One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology included among the six heavens of the desire realm. It is characterized by freedom from difficulty.
One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology, counted among the six heavens of the desire realm. Its inhabitants magically create the objects of their own enjoyment, and also dispose of them themselves.
Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy, (Toh 199).
The Heaven of Controlling Others’ Emanations is the highest (or sixth) of the six heavens of the desire realm.
One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology, highest of the six heavens of the desire realm. The inhabitants enjoy objects created by others, then dispose of them themselves.
One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology, lowest of the six heavens of the desire realm. It is located on the slopes of Mount Meru and ruled by the Four Great Kings.
One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology, the second heaven of the desire realm. It is located above Mount Meru and reigned over by Indra, otherwise known as Śakra, and thirty-two other gods.
One of the standard epithets of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
This term here refers to the knowledge or wisdom gained through study, contemplation, and meditation.
The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.
Meaning “action” in its most basic sense, karma is an important concept in Buddhist philosophy as the cumulative force of previous physical, verbal, and mental acts, which determines present experience and will determine future existences.
The court priest in the Buddha’s father’s kingdom, who predicted the Buddha’s awakening. He became one of the Buddha’s five companions in asceticism. They renounced him when he abandoned asceticism but after his awakening they became his pupils. Kauṇḍinya was the first to convert to being his pupil and was the first of his pupils to become an arhat. Also called “Kauṇḍinyagotra” and “Ājñātakauṇḍinya.”
“One who belongs to the Kuśika lineage.” An epithet of the god Śakra, also known as Indra, the king of the gods in the Trāyastriṃśa heaven. In the Ṛgveda, Indra is addressed by the epithet Kauśika, with the implication that he is associated with the descendants of the Kuśika lineage (gotra) as their aiding deity. In later epic and Purāṇic texts, we find the story that Indra took birth as Gādhi Kauśika, the son of Kuśika and one of the Vedic poet-seers, after the Puru king Kuśika had performed austerities for one thousand years to obtain a son equal to Indra who could not be killed by others. In the Pāli Kusajātaka (Jāt V 141–45), the Buddha, in one of his former bodhisattva lives as a Trāyastriṃśa god, takes birth as the future king Kusa upon the request of Indra, who wishes to help the childless king of the Mallas, Okkaka, and his chief queen Sīlavatī. This story is also referred to by Nāgasena in the Milindapañha.
“Illuminating,” the name Prince Puṇyabala receives when he is coronated as a king.
The father of the Buddha.
Another name for King Yama (Skt. yamarāja; Tib. gshin rje rgyal po), the deity who judges the dead and rules over the hell realms of the underworld.
Literally “Lord of Desire.” Name of Kubera/Vaiśravaṇa, who presides over the Desire Realm.
The mother of the Buddha.
The Mahāvastu or “Great Chapter” is a lengthy work of the Lokottaravāda (Proponents of the Supramundane) subsect of the Mahāsāṃghika (Great Saṅgha) tradition, which some scholars have regarded as a precursor of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It is written in mixed Sanskrit, Pāli, and Prakrit and is regarded as the earliest Sanskrit biography of the Buddha. The work belongs to the Vinayapiṭaka and in fact describes itself as a historical preface to the Buddhist monastic codes (Skt. vinaya). In this regard, it does correspond loosely to the Mahāvagga section of the Khandhaka in the Pāli Vinayapiṭaka. Over half the text comprises avadānas and jatakas (some having no Pāli antecedent), which tell of past lives of the Buddha when he was a bodhisattva on the path to awakening.
Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.
In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit. “Maker of Death”; a demon in Buddhism who is the personification of evil and spiritual death. He notoriously assailed the future Buddha as he sat beneath the Bodhi tree and similarly impedes the spiritual progress of Buddhist practitioners in general.
One of the Buddha’s two principal monastic disciples.
In this text, merit is established as the most prized possession of human beings, more than good looks, diligence, artistry, and insight. In Buddhism more generally, merit refers to the wholesome tendencies imprinted in the mind as a result of positive and skillful thoughts, words, and actions that ripen in the experience of happiness and well-being. According to the Mahāyāna, it is important to dedicate the merit of one’s wholesome actions to the benefit of all sentient beings, ensuring that others also experience the results of the positive actions generated.
In Mahāyāna doctrine, bodhicitta refers to the resolve to attain awakening for the benefit of all beings and can also refer to the awakened mind itself.
In this text, miserliness is one of the three factors at odds with the true Dharma because it impedes generosity and thus destroys merit.
The great mountain at the center of the universe, according to ancient Indian cosmology. At its summit lies Sudarśana city, home of Śakra (Indra) and his thirty-two gods.
A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.
The attainment of nirvāṇa without any remainder of the physical and mental aggregates.
According to Alexander Cunningham, one paṇa “was a handful of cowrie shells, usually reckoned as 80.” (See Cunningham 1996, p. 1.)
One of the four divine pleasure gardens.
bsod nams kyi stobs kyi rtogs pa brjod pa (Puṇyabalāvadāna). Toh 347, Degé Kangyur vol. 76 (mdo sde, aH), folios 1a–22a.
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bsod nams kyi stobs kyi rtogs pa brjod pa (Puṇyabalāvadāna). Stok Palace Kangyur (stog pho brang bris ma bka’ ’gyur) vol. 79 (mdo sde, sa), folios 1.b–31.a.
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福力太子因縁經 Fuli taizi yinyuan jing, Taishō 173.3.42a816–436a26.
pho brang stod thang ldan dkar gyi chos kyi ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag [Denkarma]. Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur, vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
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