In Transformation of Karma the Buddha is staying in Prince Jeta’s Grove in Śrāvastī, where he is visited by the brahmin youth Śuka, who asks the Blessed One to explain the reason why living beings appear so diversely. The Buddha answers Śuka’s question with a discourse on various categories of actions as well as rebirth and the actions leading to it. The discourse presents fifty-one categories of actions, followed by explanations of the negative consequences of transgressing the five precepts observed by all Buddhists, the advantages gained through caitya worship, and the meritorious results of specific acts of generosity.
This sūtra was translated by Bruno Galasek-Hul with the help of Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpoche of the Evam Choden Buddhist Center in Kensington (Berkeley), California. Roxanne Shooshani proofread and edited the English version. Thanks are due also to Mr. Yi Ding of Stanford University, who consulted the Chinese translations. The translator also wishes to thank Prof. Stephen Jenkins for his helpful comments.
The Dharma Scripture “Transformation of Karma” (short title: Transformation of Karma), which is presented here for the first time in an English translation, takes places in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, where the Buddha is staying with a large following of 1,250 monks. The Buddha is visited by a brahmin youth named Śuka, who requests the Buddha to explain how karmic ripening can lead to such a great diversity of beings. In response, the Buddha explains that individual karmic results are the reason for the diversity of beings, and he teaches in detail fifty-one categories of negative and positive consequences together with the specific actions that function as their causes. Next, the Buddha lists ten negative consequences for transgressing each of the five precepts: abstaining from taking life, abstaining from stealing, abstaining from sexual misconduct (here transgressing the vow of celibacy), abstaining from lying, and abstaining from consuming intoxicants. Lastly, the Buddha explains the karmic advantages that result from building and worshiping a caitya of the Tathāgata. Also enumerated are the advantages gained through making offerings and leading a religious life, living a secluded life, becoming a Buddhist mendicant, and developing confidence.
Transformation of Karma belongs to a group of Buddhist scriptures that scholars of Buddhism have called the Karmavibhaṅga or Śukasūtra class.1 The texts in this group deal extensively with the topic of karma and rebirth according to individuals’ actions. Characteristic of the treatment of karma and rebirth in these texts is their detailed, catalog-like listing of specific karmic consequences and their causative actions. It is clear, however, that this is not meant to be understood as determinism. For example, in several places the presence or absence of intention and remorse are mentioned as factors that can determine whether a particular karmic result will be experienced, whether its outcome can be influenced, and whether it can be avoided altogether.
In the Tibetan canon, Transformation of Karma is classified as a sūtra belonging to the Śrāvakayāna, and in the Degé edition of the Kangyur it is listed in the sūtra section under “various sūtras belonging to the Hīnayāna.”2 The Japanese scholar Kudo Noriyuki and others proposed that the related Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338)3 belonged to the canon of the early Buddhist ordination lineage of the Sāṃmitīyas (or Sammatīyas). The Sāṃmitīyas were a branch of the Vātsīputrīya sect, whose adherents were also known as the “Personalists” (Skt. Pudgalavādin) because they posited the existence of the individual or person (Skt. pudgala) that transmigrates from one existence to the next and is neither identical with nor different from the five aggregates. Whether Transformation of Karma, too, can be considered to have belonged to the canon of the Sāṃmitīyas, however, is difficult to say with certainty without further research.4 However, the text contains some clues that may point in that direction. The first indication is a curious statement found in 1.25, which lists as one of the karmic causes that lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras “conceiving of nonexistence with regard to the self (Skt. ātman).” If our translation of this difficult passage is correct, the view expressed therein may betray the doctrinal position of the Pudgalavādins.5 A second clue is found in 1.88, which contains the following statement: “one will not become lost in the intermediate state between death and rebirth.” We know that not all the early Buddhist sects accepted the concept of an intermediate state between death and rebirth. Those that did, according to André Bareau, included the Sarvāstivādins (Vaibhāṣikas), the Sammatīyas, the Pūrvaśailas, the later Mahīśāsakas, and the Dārṣṭāntikas.6
The Karmavibhaṅga group of texts appears to have been particularly popular in Central Asia and in China, where the continued interest in it is shown by the existence in the Chinese Tripitaka of no fewer than six different translations spanning a period of eight centuries from the late third or early fourth century
Sanskrit versions of the titles of translations of Indic texts in the Kangyur and Tengyur are traditionally given in transliteration at the beginning of the texts—but for Toh 339, the Sanskrit title differs from its Tibetan title. The Tibetan phrase rnam par ’gyur ba would suggest an original Sanskrit vikāraḥ, vikṛtiḥ, vikriyā, or vipariṇata, etc.,9 all of which belong to the English semantic field of change. The text’s transliterated Sanskrit title, on the other hand, is given as Karmavibhaṅganāmadharmagrantha, for which in Tibetan one would rather expect something like rnam par ’byed pa.10 The word vibhaṅga occurs in Buddhist literature as the title of certain works, for instance, as part of the title of one of the three major parts of the Pāli Vinaya (Suttavibhaṅga); as the title of the second, and oldest, book of the Pāli Abhidhamma (Vibhaṅga); as the Division of the Expositions (Vibhaṅgavagga), which is a section of the Majjhima Nikāya of the Pāli Canon that contains the Pāli “relatives” of the Karmavibhaṅga-group of texts (the Cūḷa- and Mahākammavibhaṅga-suttas, MN 135, 136); or as part of the title of a short work on the twelve links of dependent origination (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda) composed in Sanskrit (the Pratītyasamutpādavibhaṅganirdeśasūtra) that was found at the site of the great Indian university Nālandā, inscribed on bricks. In those contexts, Sanskrit vibhaṅga means “explanation,” in the sense of offering a more detailed explanation or elucidation—occasionally illustrated by examples, stories, or word-for-word explanations—of individual items in a list, such as the list of Vinaya rules or, in this case, a list of categories of karmically relevant actions and results. The derived meanings “exposition” and “commentary” can be regarded as generic terms applied to texts exhibiting certain stylistic features like the ones mentioned.
The final part of the Tibetan title, chos kyi gzhung (Skt. Dharmagrantha), seems to be very rare as part of the title of canonical works. A search for the expression chos kyi gzhung in the online database Resources for Kanjur and Tenjur Studies of the Tibetan Manuscripts Project of the University of Vienna yielded only the text translated here.11 Instead of translating the Tibetan rnam par ’gyur ba literally as “transformation,” “change,” or “ripening,” we have accepted the transliterated Sanskrit given in the text itself as the original title of the work, and have translated it consistent with the common Buddhist usage of the Sanskrit word vibhaṅga when applied to texts that exhibit certain characteristics.12 This choice furthermore highlights its kinship with the longer Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338).13
Mention must be made here, however, of the fact that the Kangyur editions not belonging to the Tshalpa (tshal pa) line preserve variant titles: the versions in the Stok Palace manuscript, the Shey Palace manuscript, and the Shelkar manuscript Kangyurs14—all belonging to the Thempangma (them spangs ma) line—give the Sanskrit name of the text as Karmavibhaṅganāmadharmaparyāya.15
Furthermore, the Shelkar Kangyur records as the Tibetan title las kyis rnam par ’gyur ba zhes bya ba’i chos kyi gzhung: “The Dharma Scripture Called Transformation through Karma.” If this is not simply a scribal error (the Stok and Shey Kangyurs read las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba), this title may support Sanskrit pariṇāma (“transformation,” “change,” “ripening”) as part of a possible original Sanskrit title of the work.
Yet another variant of the title should be noted. The Denkarma (Tib. ldan/lhan dkar ma), one of the three imperial catalogs of Tibetan translations made during the early transmission of the Dharma in Tibet during the eighth to ninth centuries, gives the title as las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba bstan pa’i gzhung.16
Apart from its occurrence in the title of the sūtra, we have largely avoided the lexicalized English word karma as a rendition of the Tibetan las. Instead, we translate las as “action(s).” We feel that contemporary common usage of the loanword karma is often fuzzy or unclear in that it seemingly blends together the senses “the totality of a person’s actions and conduct during successive incarnations,” a resultant state as “fate or destiny,” which is perceived to be causally influenced by the totality of a person’s actions, the “law or principle through which such influence is believed to operate,” and the woolly but popular sense of “a distinctive aura, atmosphere, or feeling.”17 We do, however, use the lexicalized adjective karmic (as, for example, in karmic result, or karmic cause and effect) in the sense of “relating to one’s action (s)” in the translation. We have furthermore used the expression karma and rebirth in this introduction knowing full well that these terms are equally difficult to define abstractly, but with the understanding that in Indic and Buddhist contexts the terms karma and rebirth are amalgamated in the term saṃsāra.
As for the “mechanics” of karmic cause and effect, the Buddha explains it in Transformation of Karma, 1.6:
“Therefore, again, the multiple varieties of sentient beings, due to their being bad, good, or middling, are karmically connected with many kinds of actions, many kinds of sufferings, and many kinds of views, in accordance with what I have taught as the black and white fruits of karmic ripening. Young brahmin, it is like this: Through carrying out black actions, sentient beings are reborn in the unfortunate rebirth destinies; they are reborn as hell beings, animals, ghosts (that is, those who have gone to the afterlife), and asuras. Through carrying out white actions, beings are reborn as devas or as humans.”
Two things are noteworthy in this passage regarding Buddhist doctrine. First is the work’s assumption of six realms of rebirth (Skt. gati). Some early Buddhist schools accepted only five realms, including the asuras in the god realm. By contrast, here the unfortunate realms or destinations of rebirth (Skt. durgati) are constituted by hell beings, animals, ghosts, and asuras; the fortunate realms or destinations of rebirth (Skt. sugati) include the devas and humans, omitting the asuras.
The second observation concerns the classification of actions into “black” and “white.” One frequently encounters this classification in Abhidharma-style works where, in an extension of the basic color metaphor, karmically efficacious action is divided into four kinds: (1) wholesome (Skt. kuśala, i.e., morally or ethically good), (2) unwholesome (Skt. akuśala, i.e., morally or ethically bad), (3) mixed (i.e., actions and results possessing both morally or ethically good and bad aspects and corresponding resultant experiences), and (4) neutral (Skt. avyākṛta or āniñjya, “undetermined” or “immovable, immobile,” e.g., the actions of an enlightened being, an arhat, etc.). For example, the Saṅgītisutta of the Dīgha Nikāya (DN 33) explains as follows: “Four kinds of kamma: There is (a) black kamma with black result, (b) bright [white] kamma with bright result, (c) black-and-bright kamma with black-and-bright result, (d) kamma that is neither black nor bright, with neither black nor bright result, leading to the destruction of kamma.”18
The same explanation, but much more technical and elaborate in its interpretive details, is found in Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya: “Action is of four types, white, black, etc. The sūtra teaches that action is of four types: black, of black retribution; white, of white retribution; black-white, of black-white retribution; neither black nor white, without black or white retribution; and that which destroys the other actions.”19
The third type, of black-white action, is further explained: “Good action of the sphere of Kāmadhātu, being mixed with the bad, is black-white; its retribution is mixed, so it is thus black-white. This definition is to be understood as applying not to the nature of the action itself, but to the ‘series’ or the person; in one and the same mental series, good action is mixed with bad action. There is no action which is black-white, nor any retribution which is black-white, which would be a contradiction.”20
The third kind of action as black-white is not specifically mentioned in Transformation of Karma’s explanations of karmic categories, but the possibility seems to be implied. For instance, when a person first experiences happiness, which later changes to the experience of unhappiness due to certain black-white actions as causes (1.44–1.48). Actions of the fourth kind, which are actions after enlightenment and which have no effect in saṃsāra, are more difficult to identify with certainty in Transformation of Karma. The explanations in 1.55, 1.57, and 1.58 seem to state that arhats are still subject to karmic punishment and reward. But they do not make any statement about the karmic efficacy (or inefficacy) of acts carried out by arhats, which was a point of contention between, for instance, the Sarvāstivādins and the Theravādins.
Three different recensions or versions of the Karmavibhaṅga are preserved in different Kangyur editions, which Kudo calls “Tib-1” (Toh 338),21 “Tib-2” (Toh 339, the text translated here), and “Tib-3,” respectively.22 The content of the third version not included in the Degé Kangyur (“Tib-3”) but found in other mixed-lineage Kangyurs and in the Themphangma Kangyurs has been explored by Walter Simon.23 Tib-3 is distinguished by the inclusion, among other things, of an introductory story that is found only in one Sanskrit manuscript, and not in Toh 338 or Toh 339. This introduction to the discourse proper tells the story of the conversion of Śuka, the son of the brahmin Taudeya, who after his death was reborn as a dog in his son’s house; he is identified by the Buddha on one of his visits to Śuka’s house during his rounds to collect alms. Śuka does not believe the Buddha’s assertion that the dog is his deceased father and at first becomes angry; but he is later convinced by the Buddha’s demonstration of the identity of the dog as his late father. After being the addressee of the Buddha’s teachings on karmic cause and effect on several occasions, Śuka eventually becomes a lay follower.
Walter Simon noted three distinguishing features of Tib-3 in comparison to Toh 338 and 339: (1) “the preservation … of the ‘introductory tale,’ ” (2) the absence of the “illustrative stories,” and (3) “the inclusion of … a table of contents.” These features, he wrote, “point to an earlier Sanskrit original.”24 Transformation of Karma, too, contains a a table of contents, and it lacks stories illustrating the various karmic categories. But, more importantly, it also lacks the introductory tale characteristic of the (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga (Lévi 1932, 21–29) and its Tibetan version in the manuscript Kangyur of the British Museum.
Like the Tib-3 version of the Karmavibhaṅga, the summary of the fifty-one karmic categories at the beginning of Transformation of Karma (1.8–1.63) does not include the items contained in 1.64–1.68 (a list of ten negative consequences each of the actions of killing, stealing, lying, unchastity, and drinking alcohol) or 1.69–1.90 (the advantages gained by making various offerings at caityas). The Tib-3 version contains the advantages of venerating and making offerings at caityas, but it does not contain the list of five negative actions and their consequences included in 1.64–1.68 of Transformation of Karma. It is reasonable to argue, therefore, that 1.64–1.68 of Transformation of Karma, and perhaps a portion of 1.69–1.90, are later additions to the text.
As we have already mentioned, no complete Sanskrit version of Transformation of Karma is extant. In his study of the Khotanese fragments of the Karmavibhaṅga, Mauro Maggi remarks that Transformation of Karma “corresponds” to “S2” (that is, a manuscript fragment of the Śukasūtra from Eastern Turkestan, in the British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections, London, which was edited by A. F. R. Hoernle in 1916 and reproduced in Lévi 1932, 235–36).25 However, Sylvain Lévi had already observed that although the two texts—the Central Asian Sanskrit fragment and the Tibetan text of Transformation of Karma Toh 339 (i.e., Lévi’s “T2”)—exhibit a family likeness, they are different.26 A careful comparison of Lévi’s edition of the extant Sanskrit portions of the Śukasūtra fragment from Central Asia (paragraphs VIII–XII) with the corresponding paragraphs in the Tibetan text of Transformation of Karma confirms Lévi’s observation.
To sum up, no exactly corresponding Sanskrit source text of the Tibetan translation of Transformation of Karma seems to be extant. Nevertheless, due to their similarity, the Sanskrit fragment of the Central Asian recension allowed us to throw some light on certain obscure terms in the Tibetan text.
Regrettably, we possess no information about who translated the text or when. The Tibetan text in the Degé edition (as well as in the other editions) has no colophon, which usually provides this information, and according to the Tōhoku catalog, the identity of the translator(s) is unknown.27 It is not possible at this point to establish the relationship between these different extant versions of the text, and Transformation of Karma thus seems to be the sole textual witness of yet another recension or a different version in the Karmavibhaṅga or Śukasūtra group.
Nevertheless, we have frequently consulted (in a rather unsystematic way and as indicated in the footnotes) the extant Sanskrit witnesses: the two Sanskrit manuscripts in the National Archives of Nepal, Kathmandu, published by Lévi in 1932 and Kudo in 2004; the two-folio fragment of a different recension, published by Fukita in 1990 and Kudo in 2004; a Kuchean Sanskrit fragment of the Śukasūtra, published by Lévi in 1932; and the Pāli (MN 135, 136), Tibetan (Toh 338), and Khotanese (in English translation by Maggi in 1995) versions of the related (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga (Lévi 1932) to aid our understanding of this often obscure Tibetan text.
The Tibetan text of Toh 339 is notable for its idiosyncrasies. It contains several nonstandard expressions and names of Buddhist concepts that are worthy of mention, such as ngan pa, ring du ’khyams pa, and mya ngan bsring(s).28 Furthermore, it contains an idiosyncratic rendering of the four formless meditative absorptions (Skt. ārūpyasamāpatti) or, as they are called in Transformation of Karma, “the four states of imperturbability.” These observations lead us to believe that the translation of Transformation of Karma predates the third Tibetan language revision or language reform of 814
What we can safely say, though, is that Transformation of Karma represents a translation that does not strictly adhere to the reformed, standardized language that was prescribed by decree for the translations from Indic originals in the ninth-century Tibetan manuals for translators, the Mahāvyutpatti and the sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa.
It is generally assumed that the Tibetan translation activity of the first dissemination of the Dharma began around the middle of the eighth century
This translation into English was made directly from the Tibetan text of the Degé edition with the help of its parallel versions. However, mention must be made of the pioneering French translation by Léon Feer in 1883. This French Sanskritist and Orientalist, who was the first to translate Kangyur materials into a European language, gave us the first translation of Transformation of Karma in a European language in his Fragments: Extraits du Kandjour.35 However, Feer did not have at his disposal the wealth of material on the Karmavibhaṅga group of texts that we have today, and he was thus unable to consult similar or related versions of the text to assist him in his efforts to make sense of obscure and difficult passages in the Tibetan text. Our translation refers frequently to Feer’s translation in the notes, especially where Feer’s interpretation of the Tibetan deviates from ours.36 However, our translation should not be considered definitive or final. Rather, it is an attempt to improve upon Feer’s where possible.
Since the text itself is not very long, and the Tibetan text in the Kangyur does not have any chapter subdivisions, we have likewise refrained from inserting any such divisions. We have, however, referenced Feer’s sensible general outline of the text in the notes to the translation. Feer divided the text into three main parts, each with subdivisions and individually numbered paragraphs, and in the notes to our translation we have noted his general division of the text.
In producing the translation, we have used the Degé edition (siglum D) as the basis. We have also perused the Comparative Edition of the Kangyur (Tib. dpe bsdur ma) (A), together with its list of variant readings. Where the Degé text seemed ambiguous or was not readily comprehensible, we have directly consulted two versions of the text belonging to the Thempangma line, namely, the Stok Palace manuscript Kangyur (S) and the Shey Palace manuscript Kangyur from Ladakh (Z). For variant readings that affect the meaning of a passage, we have done our best to provide an alternative English translation in the notes. Where we were unable to provide an alternative translation for a variant (e.g., because we didn’t understand it) that nevertheless seemed significant enough to be recorded, the variant is followed by a question mark. Except for the two witnesses (S and Z) belonging to the Thempangma line, all other variant readings (of the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, Choné, Narthang, Urga, and Lhasa editions of the Kangyur; see Abbreviations for their sigla) are taken from list of variants in the Comparative Edition edition.
Thus did I hear at one time:37 The Bhagavān was staying in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, together with a large assembly of twelve hundred fifty monks.38
On that occasion the brahmin youth Śuka,39 the son of Taudeya, went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Upon his arrival, he exchanged many courteous and amiable pleasantries with the Bhagavān and remained standing to one side.40 The brahmin youth Śuka, the son of Taudeya, then addressed the Bhagavān with the following question: “Gautama, if I ask you a small question, will you kindly give an answer?”41
The Bhagavān replied, “Young brahmin, ask whatever you like! I will answer.”
Then the brahmin youth Śuka, the son of Taudeya, asked the Bhagavān the following question: “Sir42 Gautama, there are many types of sentient beings, such as beings who have a short lifespan or a long lifespan, have many illnesses or few illnesses, are ugly or beautiful, have little power or are powerful, are highborn or lowborn, are poor or rich, are ignorant of the Dharma,43 or possess knowledge of the Dharma to a lesser or greater degree, have good or bad fortune, and so forth. How does karmic ripening lead to this diversity of beings?”44
The Bhagavān replied, “Young brahmin, listen45 and pay careful attention to what I shall explain.46 Young brahmin, sentient beings are the owners of their actions committed in former lives;47 sentient beings have actions as their heritage, actions as their origin, actions as their individual causes; sentient beings develop through actions, young brahmin.48[F.299.b]
“Therefore, again, the multiple varieties of sentient beings, due to their being bad, good, or middling, are karmically connected with many kinds of actions, many kinds of sufferings, and many kinds of views, in accordance with what I have taught as the black and white fruits of karmic ripening.49 Young brahmin, it is like this: Through carrying out black actions, sentient beings are reborn in the unfortunate rebirth destinies;50 they are reborn as hell beings, animals, ghosts (that is, those who have gone to the afterlife51), and asuras.52 Through carrying out white actions, beings are reborn as devas or as humans.
“Therefore, young brahmin, as a result of one’s actions,53 one’s life is short or long, one has many or few illnesses, one is ugly or beautiful, one is insignificant or influential, one is lowborn54 or highborn, one is poor or rich, one is ignorant of the Dharma,55 or one has extensive knowledge of the Dharma;56 as a result of one’s actions, one is reborn as a hell being, an animal, a ghost, an asura, a human, a deva possessing a physical body,57 or a deva without a physical body; as a result of one’s actions, one’s rebirth is determinate in accordance with the action,58 one’s rebirth is indeterminate,59 there is rebirth in a foreign country, there is rebirth through carrying out an action without intent,60 there is rebirth when one has intended an action but not carried it out, there is rebirth when one has intended an action and carried it out,[F.300.a] and there is rebirth when one has neither intended an action nor carried it out. There are also actions that, when accumulated,61 lead to rebirth into a new existence only after the lifespan in hell has been completed; furthermore, there are actions that, when accumulated, lead to rebirth into a new existence after only half the lifespan in hell is exhausted, as well as actions that lead to rebirth immediately upon arriving in hell.62 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to future unhappiness following upon past happiness.63 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to to future happiness following upon past unhappiness.64 There are actions that, when accumulated by people and sentient beings,65 lead to future happiness following upon past happiness. There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to miserliness, to being poor and generous, to being wealthy and generous, and to being poor and miserly. There are individuals whose lifespans are exhausted but not their actions,66 there are individuals whose actions are exhausted but not their lifespans, and there are individuals whose lifespans and actions are simultaneously exhausted. There are individuals who will eliminate their sufferings although neither their lifespans nor their actions are exhausted. There are individuals who will become unwell in their minds while their bodies are well.67 There are actions that lead an individual to be well in their mind while their body is unwell,68 or to be well in mind and body,69 or to be unwell in both mind and body.70 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to having a body that is graceful,71 beautiful looking, and pretty, with a nice and glossy complexion, a feast for the eyes, although an individual is reborn in an inferior form of existence.72 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to having an inferior physique,[F.300.b] a crude body and an unpleasant and unsightly appearance for an individual reborn in an inferior form of existence. Furthermore, young brahmin, it is like this: through carrying out the ten nonvirtuous courses of action, conditions in one’s environment will deteriorate.73
“Now, in what way does action lead to a short74 lifespan?75 Due to ten factors,76 one’s lifespan will be shortened. What are the ten?77 (1) Taking life,78 (2) encouraging others to take life,79 (3) speaking praise of killing, (4) resolving to80 kill, (5) aborting a fetus, (6) encouraging abortion, (7) wishing one’s enemy to be killed, (8) feeling joy at the death of one’s foe,81 (9) preparing the ground for slaughtering animals and killing them there, and (10) watching a battle and delighting in it.82 Through these ten factors, one’s lifespan will be shortened, and one will suffer many illnesses.
“How can one achieve a long life through carrying out good actions? Ten factors lead to a long life. What are the ten? (1) Abstaining from killing; (2) preventing others from killing; (3) speaking praise of abstaining from killing; (4) resolving to abstain from killing; (5) freeing sentient beings who have been captured in order to be slaughtered; (6) freeing imprisoned humans who are to be executed; (7) giving refuge to sentient beings83 who are frightened and terrified; (8) having a compassionate attitude toward those who are without protection; (9) embracing with one’s love those who are ill; and (10) giving clothing, food, and drink to the destitute. Through these ten factors, one will have a long life and be free from illness.
“In what way does action lead to having many illnesses? Ten factors lead to having many illnesses. What are the ten? (1) Beating somebody with a stick, with the hand,84 or with something else; (2) encouraging someone to beat somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (3) praising the action of beating somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (4) resolving to beat somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (5) distressing one’s parents; (6) distressing monks and nuns;85 (7) feeling joy about one’s enemies falling ill;[F.301.a] (8) feeling joy when one’s enemies do not recover from an illness; (9) giving them the wrong medicine; and (10) eating indigestible food.86 These are the ten. Through these ten factors, one will have many illnesses.
“How will one have few illnesses through carrying out good actions? Ten factors lead to having few illnesses. What are the ten? (1) Not beating somebody with a stick, with one’s hand, or with something else; (2) preventing others87 from beating somebody with a stick, with their hands, or with something else; (3) not speaking praise of beating somebody with a stick, with a hand, or with something else; (4) resolving not to beat88 somebody with a stick, with one’s hand, or with something else; (5) serving89 one’s ill parents; (6) serving monks and nuns when they are ill; (7) being unhappy when one’s enemies have fallen ill; (8) feeling joy when one’s enemies recover from an illness; (9) giving medicine to the sick; and (10) eating digestible food.90 These are the ten. Through these ten factors, one will have few illnesses.
“In what way does action lead to ugliness?91 Ten factors lead to ugliness. What are the ten? (1) Anger; (2) inflicting harm;92 (3) holding a grudge,93 even for a trifle; (4) rage; (5) reviling one’s parents;94 (6) reviling monks and nuns;95 (7) corrupting the dwelling of monks and nuns;96 (8) extinguishing the offering lamps at a caitya97 of the Tathāgata;9899 (9) treating ugly persons with contempt;100 and (10) being uncleanly.101 These are the ten factors.102
“In what way does action lead to being beautiful?103 Ten factors lead to being beautiful. What are the ten? (1) Non-hatred; (2) donating clothing; (3) sweeping often at a caitya of the Tathāgata; (4) sweeping clean the shrine hall; (5) speaking pleasingly to one’s parents; (6) speaking pleasingly to monks and nuns;104 (7) not treating ugly persons with contempt;105 and (8) being very cleanly.106 These are the ten factors.107
“In what way does action lead to having little power?108 Ten factors lead to having little power. What are the ten? (1) Envying others’ achievements;109 (2) being happy when others fail; (3) being unhappy about others’ attainments; (4) being happy about others’ unhappiness,[F.301.b] dishonor, bad reputation, obscurity, and criticism;110 (5) being unhappy about others’ happiness, glory, good reputation, and renown; (6) not venerating111 one’s parents and one’s virtuous spiritual teacher; (7) not serving monks and nuns;112 (8) generating the roots of unwholesome states with regard to those who have little power;113 (9) cutting off the roots of wholesome states with regard to those who are powerful;114 and (10) praising those who act wickedly. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to possessing power? Ten factors lead to being powerful. What are the ten? (1) Not envying others’ achievements; (2) rejoicing in others’ achievements; (3) not rejoicing in others’ failures; (4) not rejoicing in others’ unhappiness, disgrace, bad reputation, obscurity, or criticism; (5) rejoicing in others’ happiness, glory, good reputation, and renown; (6) arousing the mind of enlightenment; (7) erecting a stūpa and (8) a caitya for the Tathāgata;115 (9) cutting off the roots of unwholesome states with regard to those who are powerless;116 and (10) generating the roots of wholesome states with regard to those who are powerful. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being lowborn? Ten factors lead to being lowborn. What are the ten? (1) Not honoring one’s parents;117 (2) not honoring118 ascetics;119 (3) not honoring brahmins; (4) not esteeming those of noble birth;120 (5) not serving, not respecting,121 or not regaling122 one’s monastic preceptor,123 one’s teacher, or those who have entered the path of liberation;124 (6) not revering one’s parents; (7) showing contempt for and not venerating one’s monastic preceptor, one’s teacher, or those who have entered the path of liberation; (8) shunning those coming from powerful families; and (9) commending people who do bad deeds. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being highborn? Ten factors lead to being highborn. What are the ten? (1) Commemorating one’s parents; (2) honoring those who have entered the path of liberation; (3) honoring brahmins; (4) esteeming those who are of noble birth;125[F.302.a] (5) arising from one’s seat and preparing it,126 bowing respectfully, and then offering one’s seat and so forth to one’s monastic preceptor, one’s teacher, those who have entered the path of liberation, and those others who apply themselves to the path [of liberation];127128 (6) venerating one’s parents; (7) venerating one’s preceptors, teachers, those who have entered the path of liberation, and others;129 (8) making no distinction between one who is of high social status and one who is of low social status, and equating them; (9) planting the life tree inside a stūpa of the Tathāgata; and (10) hanging floral wreaths and raising parasols. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to poverty? Ten factors lead to becoming poor. What are the ten? (1) Stealing;130 (2) encouraging others to commit theft; (3) commending theft; (4) resolving to steal; (5) depriving one’s parents of their sustenance; (6) depriving one’s preceptors, teachers, or those who have entered the path of liberation of their temples,131 living quarters, offerings, or service;132 (7) being unhappy about others’ gains;133 (8) rejoicing in others’ losses;134 (9) hindering others from obtainment; and (10) wishing135 for a famine to occur. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to wealth? Ten factors lead to becoming rich. What are the ten? (1) Abstaining from stealing; (2) encouraging others to give up stealing; (3) rejoicing when others give up stealing; (4) providing one’s parents with sustenance;136 (5) providing one’s monastic preceptor,137 one’s teacher, and the other members of the monastic saṅgha138 with a temple, living quarters, service,139 robes, a bed,140 medicine141 to cure illness, a servant,142 or sustenance; (6) having joyful thoughts about others’ gains; (7) making an effort so that others can acquire [wealth];143 (8) not rejoicing in others’ losses; (9) praying for a good harvest everywhere;144 and (10) rejoicing in the actions of those who practice generosity and so forth liberally. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being ignorant of the Dharma?145 Ten factors lead to being ignorant of the Dharma. What are the ten? (1) Not valuing inquiry of a qualified person,146 (2) fostering all that is not the true Dharma, (3) abandoning the true Dharma, (4) not honoring and venerating those who teach the true Dharma, (5) praising well those who speak inconsequentially,147148 (6) attending to and serving those who are ignorant of the Dharma, (7) abandoning those who are truly learned in the Dharma,149 (8) regarding wrong views as authoritative and praising them,[F.302.b] (9) abandoning correct views, and (10) abandoning those who are knowledgeable. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to possessing extensive knowledge of the Dharma?150 Ten factors lead to possessing extensive knowledge of the Dharma. What are the ten? (1) Valuing inquiries of anyone using a progression of questions;151 (2) not attending to, not serving, not honoring, and not venerating unlearned ascetics, brahmins, and persons who are ignorant of the Dharma; (3) attending to, serving, honoring, and venerating learned persons; (4) giving up all that is not the true Dharma; (5) fostering the true Dharma; (6) cultivating fearlessness toward persons who are worthy receptacles of the Dharma;152 (7) praising by saying, ‘Well done!’ those who speak pleasing words that are true; (8) not praising by saying, ‘Well done!’ those who speak ill of others;153 (9) not lauding wrong view; and (10) praising right view. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a hell being? Ten factors lead to hell. What are the ten? (1) Engaging a grave154 evil deed with the body, (2) engaging in a grave evil deed with the speech, (3) engaging in a grave evil deed with the mind, (4) holding the wrong view of annihilation, (5) holding the wrong view of eternalism, (6) holding the wrong view that actions are without consequences,155 (7) destroying others’ welfare, (8) speaking ill of monks and nuns,156 and (9) instigating them to transgress their vows of celibacy.157 These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as an animal? Ten factors lead to rebirth as an animal. What are the ten? (1) Engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s body; (2) engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s speech; (3) engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s mind;158 (4) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of desire;159 (5) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of anger; (6) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of confusion; (7) giving inappropriate gifts; (8) being aggressive toward those who have been reborn as animals; (9) being reborn as a lion through the power of aspiration of the bodhisattva;160 and (10) being reborn as a monkey, like a certain brahmin,161 which was due to making a foulmouthed remark. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the realm of ghosts?162 Ten factors lead to rebirth in the realm of ghosts: (1) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s body,[F.303.a] (2) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s speech, (3) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s mind, (4) having a desire for base things,163 (5) having very strong desire,164 (6) pursuing a wrong way of making a living, (7) being stingy and tightfisted, (8) obstructing others in making offerings, (9) having died while under the influence of sexual desire, and (10) having died while being hungry and thirsty. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras? Ten factors lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras. What are the ten? (1) Frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s body, (2) frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s speech, (3) frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s mind, (4) conceit,165 (5) conceiving of oneself as having no equal, (6) conceiving of oneself as being greater than one’s equals,166 (7) conceiving of oneself as being greater than those who are superior, (8) conceiving of oneself as being superior to those who are supreme, (9) conceiving of nonexistence with regard to the self,167168 and (10) dedicating one’s roots of wholesome states to false aspirations.169 These are the ten. These ten factors will lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the human realm? Ten factors lead to rebirth in the human realm. What are the ten? By not violating and not corrupting the ten virtuous courses of action, one will be reborn in the human realm.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure?170 Ten factors lead to rebirth as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure. By not violating, and remaining diligently committed171 to, the ten virtuous courses of action, one will be reborn as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body? Ten factors lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body. What are the ten? While one is devoted to the ten virtuous courses of action, one brings the six perfections and the four boundless states to perfection—this will lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body.172
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva without a physical body?173 Practicing the ten virtuous factors and the four states of imperturbability174 leads to rebirth as a deva without a physical body. As for the four states of imperturbability:175
1. “One transcends all materiality by contemplating the infinity of space, so that, when all names designating physical objects176 have become inexpressible and void,177 one goes beyond labeling and imagining the manifold phenomena,[F.303.b] but one does not grasp178 at the stillness179 that is produced by180 the sphere of infinite space.
2. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of infinite space, one contemplates the infinity of consciousness, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of infinite consciousness.
3. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of infinite consciousness, one contemplates that nothing at all exists, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of nothingness.
4. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of nothingness, one contemplates that neither mind nor no-mind exists, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of neither mind nor no-mind.
“It is through these four factors181 that one will be reborn as a deva in the formless realm.
“How does action lead to a predetermined rebirth?182 Having carried out actions based on the roots of wholesome states, one dedicates them to whichever rebirth location one has aspired to;183 or one commits the evil actions that bring immediate karmic retribution. In these ways, one’s rebirth will have the nature of being predetermined.
“How can rebirth be changed through action?184 A person carries out a virtuous action and makes an aspiration prayer—by virtue of this action, that person’s rebirth destiny can be changed.185
“How does action cause a person to be reborn in another country? After one has contemplated with strong faith either the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, or any person who possesses moral discipline, one makes an offering and prays to be reborn in another country.186 According to whatever [other] actions one has committed, their good or bad187 [karmic results] are exemplified in the story of the merchant: his actions ripened after he had traveled to a foreign country.188
“What kind of action is considered to be carried out without intent?189 Having carried out an action, one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong, and confesses; one does not give up effacing it, one does not engage in it again, and one vows not to do it again in the future. This kind of action[F.304.a] is considered to be carried out without intent.
“What kind of action190 is considered to be intended but not carried out? An action was not physically carried out191 if, when the thought welled up192 and at that moment one said, ‘I will do this,’ one did not carry it out. This kind of action is considered to be intended but not carried out.
“What kind of action is considered to be intended and carried out?193 Whatever action one has carried out, one does not feel remorse, is not conscience stricken, does not think that it was a mistake, does not confess, does not try to efface it, engages in it again, and does not vow to not do it again in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn194 again as a hell being after completion of the full lifespan of the hell realm?195 Suppose one has carried out an intentional action that leads to rebirth in hell, and one does not feel remorse, is not conscience stricken, does not consider one’s action a mistake, does not consider it inappropriate, does not confess, does not try to efface it, engages again in this evil action, even vows to commit this action again in the future, rejoices in this action, and admires such action. A person who has accumulated such an action will be reborn in the hell realm, and after completion of the full lifespan of the hell realm, will again be reborn in hell.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn again as a hell being after only half of the lifespan in that hell has elapsed? Suppose one has carried out an action that leads to rebirth in hell, but one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, and thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong; and one confesses, does not give up effacing it, does not engage in this evil action again, and vows not to commit this action again in the future. While one who has accumulated this kind of action will be reborn as a hell being, one will subsequently take rebirth after only half the lifespan in that hell has elapsed.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn immediately upon rebirth in the hells? Suppose one has carried out an intentional action that leads to rebirth in hell, but one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong;[F.304.b] and one confesses, does not give up effacing it, does not engage in this evil action again, and vows not to commit it again in the future; and later, one is unhappy about having carried out such an action, dispenses with, shuns, and renounces this action, and arouses an intense sense of renunciation.196 The person who has accumulated such an action will take rebirth immediately upon being born into the hell realm, as did King Ajātaśatru, for example.197
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be happy at first, and become unhappy later? Suppose one makes a donation but does not give joyfully.198 By failing to make one’s mind happy and joyful, one feels regret after having given. Then, when one is reborn as a human, one will be born into a wealthy family, richly endowed with wealth and possessions. Having become an important person of high rank, one will have many ministers, assistants, relatives, and clan members;199 one will have many possessions; and one’s treasury and granary will always be well filled. One will be happy and possess many mounts and carriages.200 Throughout, one is enjoying happiness, but later it diminishes and is exhausted. Having thus arrived at unhappiness, the person who has accumulated such an action consequently is powerful, wealthy, and happy at first; but later, weakened by hunger, becomes unhappy.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be unhappy at first, and happy in the future as a karmic result?201 Suppose one makes an offering without faith at first, but later one’s mind grows faithful and one feels elated.202 If one is reborn as a human, one will be born into a poor family. Food and possessions will be scarce. From a state of being distressed and without food and clothing, one will later become powerful, wealthy, and happy, and everything will increase. A person who has thus come to lack nothing203 is unhappy at first but becomes happy in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be happy at first, and happy in the future? Suppose that one makes a lavish offering and gives it joyfully, and that because of giving, one’s own mind becomes happy, and one does not have regrets later. The karmic fruit for one such as this, if reborn as human, is that one will be born into a wealthy family and enjoy abundant wealth. After becoming an important person of high rank, one will have many ministers,[F.305.a] assistants, relatives, and clan members; one will have plentiful possessions, and the granary will always be full. One will be profoundly happy and possess many mounts and carriages. Born in such a family, happiness of that kind will arise and increase.204 Therefore, a person, by accumulating such an action, will be happy at first, and in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be unhappy at first, and unhappy in the future as a karmic result?205 Suppose one has abandoned one’s virtuous friend, no one at all has encouraged one to engage in generosity, and one also has not made any offerings to others on one’s own accord. If one such as this is reborn as a human, one will be poor and famished, lacking food and drink, lacking clothing, and therefore living in distress, or one will live without food, drink, or clothing. Also, in the future, due to those conditions one will not become happy or enjoy an increase in resources. One who has accumulated such an action will not be happy at first and will also be unhappy in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be stingy although being wealthy as a karmic result? Suppose one is not at all magnanimous toward worthy recipients of offerings and offers only a small amount; through being parsimonious when giving, while nonetheless making it a habit, one will be born in a wealthy family. Although one will have at one’s disposal extensive wealth and many possessions, one will be stingy. A person who has accumulated such an action will, although wealthy, be very stingy.
“What kind of action leads a person to be wealthy and generous as a karmic result?206 Suppose one offers lavishly and has developed the habit of making very a large offering to a worthy recipient of offerings. If one is reborn as a human, one will be reborn into a wealthy family; one can lead a life of abundance in food and possessions,207 and one will be a generous person. The accumulation of such an action leads to being wealthy and generous.
“What kind of action leads a person to be poor and generous as a karmic result? Suppose one offers lavishly and has made it a habit to make a large offering to those who are not worthy recipients of offerings. If one is reborn as a human, one will be reborn into a poor family,[F.305.b] will not be able to lead a life of abundance in food and possessions, and will suffer hardship.208 But even though one does not have enough clothing or food to provide for one’s own life, one is generous. A person who has accumulated such an action will be poor and generous.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be poor and stingy? Suppose one has abandoned one’s virtuous friend, no one at all has encouraged one to engage in generosity, and neither has one made any offerings on one’s own accord209—but one has not intentionally carried out any evil actions—then, even if one were to be reborn as a human, one would be born into a poor family. One would live without food or possessions and suffer hardship. Constantly toiling to obtain clothing and food, one will be stingy. A person who has accumulated such an action will be poor and stingy.
“What kind of persons have exhausted their lifespans but not the potential of their past actions?210 Suppose that someone, although having passed away in the hell realm, is subsequently reborn in hell; or having passed away as an animal, is reborn as an animal; or having passed away in the ghost realm, is reborn as a ghost; or having passed away in the realm of asuras, is reborn as an asura; or having died as a human, is reborn as a human. Such persons have exhausted their lifespans but not the potential of their past actions.
“What kind of persons have exhausted the potential of their past actions but not their lifespans? Those who formerly were happy and later became unhappy; or those who formerly were unhappy and later became happy. Such persons have exhausted the potential of their past actions but not their lifespans.
“What kind of persons have exhausted both the potential of their past actions and their lifespans? Suppose a person, having passed away in the hell realm, is reborn as an animal; or having passed away as an animal, is reborn as a ghost; or having passed away as a ghost, is reborn as an asura; or having passed away as an asura, is reborn as a human; or having passed away as a human, is reborn as a god. Such persons have exhausted both the potential of their past actions and their lifespans.
“What kind of persons, through which kind of action, have eliminated suffering while neither their lifespans nor the potential of their past actions is exhausted? The stream enterers, the once-returners, the non-returners, and the arhats—these individuals have eliminated suffering, although they have indeed neither exhausted the potential of their past actions nor their lifespans.
“What kind of person is well in body but not in mind?[F.306.a] An ordinary worldly person who,211 after having acquired merit, becomes a universal monarch—this kind of person is well in body but not in mind.212
“What kind of person is well in their mind but not in their body? An arhat who has not accumulated merit but whose ethical conduct is perfect. A person such as Lekuñcika,213 who is an arhat, is well in mind, but his body is not well.
“What kind of person is well in both mind and body? An arhat who has accumulated merit, a person like Śaivala,214 whose ethical conduct is perfect, is well in both mind and body.
“What kind of persons are unwell in their minds and in their bodies? Ordinary, worldly persons who have not accumulated any merit. Such persons are unwell both in their minds and in their bodies.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be born into an inferior form of existence with a body that is healthy, pleasant, pretty, beautiful in color, with a brilliant complexion, and beautiful to behold? A person who, motivated by desire, has violated their moral discipline, when reborn in the lower realms, will have a body that is healthy, pleasant, and pretty.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be born into an inferior form of existence with a body that is inferior, coarse, ugly, and revolting?215 When a person has an angry disposition and is unable to keep moral discipline, after accumulating the corresponding action, is reborn in an inferior form of existence, they will possess a body that is inferior, coarse, ugly, and revolting.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be born into an inferior form of existence, foul smelling, and with impaired, missing, or inadequate sense organs? When a person has a disposition toward confusion and is unable to keep moral discipline, and after accumulating the corresponding action is reborn in an inferior form of existence, they will be foul smelling and have impaired, missing, or inadequate sense organs.
“How will one’s external environment216 deteriorate by reason of carrying out the ten nonvirtuous actions?217 As a consequence218 of killing,[F.306.b] the earth will lose its color;219 as a consequence of stealing, the land will be hit by hail and infested by birds, mice, and insects; through the act of leading an unchaste life, one will be born in a place beset by fog, wind, dust, and dust storms; the karmic result of lying is a bad taste in one’s mouth, and one’s breath will be foul smelling; the karmic result of frequently exercising divisive speech is that one will be born in a land where the ground is uneven,220 rugged, and unclean—a land where the skin disease called rkong221 is prevalent and where heaps of stones are scattered everywhere; the karmic result of trivial talk is that one will be born in a country with many ravines, where the trees, branches, and foliage all have thorns, and which is covered by a dense jungle;222 the karmic result of greed is that grain and fruit will be scanty; as a consequence of hatred,223 grain and fruit will be pungent, sour, and bitter; and through the act of holding wrong views and causing others to have wrong views, grain and fruit will be scanty and of inferior quality. By engaging in the ten nonvirtuous actions in this way, one’s external environment224 will deteriorate and one will be born in unpleasant places.”225
And the Bhagavān declared in addition, “Young brahmin,226 you should furthermore understand and know that there are ten negative consequences of killing.227 What are the ten? (1) One will have numerous enemies; (2) one will have an ugly appearance; (3) one’s life will be short; (4) one will think about evil actions; (5) one will frighten sentient beings; (6) one will constantly fall asleep feeling sad; (7) one will constantly awaken feeling sad; (8) one will dream about sins228 and later have regrets; (9) one will think about and carry out actions that lead to having a short lifespan; and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states229 and be reborn in hell.
“The karmic ripening of stealing leads to ten negative consequences.230 What are the ten? (1) One will become an enemy; (2) one will feel qualms; (3) one will walk about inappropriately;231 (4) one will roam about at night; (5) one will be conjoined with every evil companion;232 (6) one will be bereft of any virtuous friends;233 (7) one will be incapable of keeping a household;234 (8) one will be put on trial and convicted by the king; (9) one will constantly think about and carry out actions[F.307.a] that lead to others’ unhappiness; and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states and be reborn in hell.
“One should recognize that leading an unchaste life leads to ten negative consequences. What are the ten? (1) One will sleep with others’ spouses; (2) one will seek an opportunity [to sleep with others’ spouses]; (3) one will quarrel with one’s spouse; (4) one’s partner will leave one; (5) all kinds of nonvirtuous personal qualities will arise, and virtuous qualities will steadily diminish; (6) one will not find true protection; (7) one’s family will not be truly protected; (8) one will feel anxiety; (9) one will contemplate and carry out actions that turn one’s relatives, friends, and fellow clansmen into enemies; and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states and be reborn in hell.
“When one lies, ten negative consequences ensue. What are the ten? (1) Around the liar’s body, deities will not congregate; (2) instead, nonhuman spirits will gather; (3) others will deceive one; (4) one’s word will be unreliable; (5) one will always have bad breath; (6) everybody will mistrust one, even when one speaks honestly; (7) people will say that it is wrong to ask such a great liar anything; (8) one will become known as someone with a bad reputation and without commendation; (9) one will habitually contemplate and carry out actions that are regarded as evil,235 leading to the situation in which nobody listens to what one says;236 and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states and be reborn in hell.
“One should know the negative consequences associated with drinking alcohol that lead to thirty-five kinds237 of heedlessness. Which thirty-five? (1) The wealth that one is currently experiencing will dissipate;238 (2) one’s faith [in the Three Jewels] will dissipate;239 (3) quarrels and disputes will arise; (4) one will neither feel embarrassment nor have a guilty conscience;240 (5) drinking makes one disgrace oneself; (6) drinking makes one’s knowledge deteriorate; (7) previously unaccumulated happiness241 will not be accumulated in the future;242 (8) the happiness that one has accumulated will diminish and eventually disappear completely; (9) one will reveal secrets; (10) one will neglect one’s duties; (11) one will become feeble and sickly; (12) one will be a source of suffering [for others];243 (13) one will not honor one’s mother; (14) one will not honor one’s father; (15) one will not honor those who have entered the path of liberation; (16) one will not honor brahmins; (17) one will not show respect and reverence for those of noble birth; (18) one will not venerate the Buddha; (19) one will not venerate the Dharma;[F.307.b] (20) one will not venerate the Saṅgha; (21) instead, one will venerate immoral friends; (22) one will completely abandon and loathe virtuous friends; (23) one will not have a guilty conscience; (24) one will not be afraid of embarrassment; (25) one will neglect one’s appearance;244 (26) one will be heedless with regard to sexual misconduct; (27) one will be considered unattractive by many beings; (28) one will be despised by many; (29) one will abandon noble families, relatives, and fellow clansmen;245 (30) one will fully embrace that which is not the true Dharma; (31) one will completely abandon the true Dharma; (32) the people above one246 will turn away from one in disgust, saying, ‘This one is not commendable because of his bad behavior’; (33) one will be separated from nirvāṇa for a long time; (34) one will ponder how to get drunk,247 and one will make ignoble mistakes in very many ways; and (35) after one has died, one will fall down into the hell realms and, even if one is without a physical body, one will go to a bad state. Therefore, [alcohol] should not be drunk and should be abandoned by everyone, high and low.248
“Young brahmin,249 one will gain ten advantages250 through worshiping with devotion, with the palms of one’s hands joined in reverence, at the caitya of the Sugata. What are the ten? (1) One will be born into a noble family; (2) one will have a tall body; (3) one will have many servants; (4) one will have great veneration and reverence toward one’s parents; (5) one will have great wealth; (6) one will have great erudition; (7) one will possess faith; (8) one will have a good memory and (9) vast knowledge; and (10) one will obtain a sure path to heaven.
“One will gain ten advantages from prostrating oneself before a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a beautiful body; (2) one will have a pleasant voice; (3) all will listen to one’s words; (4) all one’s servants will praise one; (5) one will be endowed with happiness; (6) one will be influential among devas and (7) humans; (8) one’s possessions will be abundant;251 (9) one will be reborn in heaven; and (10) one will quickly attain even nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a parasol at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will be like a parasol,252 (2) one will not cause harm to the world,253 (3) one will become the object of [people’s] aspirations,254 (4) one will gain worldly power,255 (5) one will act on one’s intentions,256 (6) eventually one will attain the state of a universal monarch,257 (7) one will become very powerful, (8) one will have abundant possessions, and (9) one will be reborn in heaven[F.308.a] and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a bell at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a beautiful body; (2) one’s voice will be melodious; (3) one’s speech will be pleasing; (4) one’s speech will be like the song of the kalaviṅka bird; (5) all will listen to what one says; (6) one will always be happy and filled with delight; (7) one will continuously hear pleasing sounds; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering robes at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a fine complexion; (2) dust won’t stick to one’s body;258 (3) one will be conscientious; (4) one will be a delight to behold; (5) one will always have clothing; (6) one’s garments will remain soft forever and be durable; (7) one will obtain anything that one wants; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering flowers at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will be like a flower in the world;259 (2) one’s power of expression will be purified; (3) the scent produced by one’s body will be sweet smelling; (4) one’s body will become purified; (5) one will go to spread the strength260 to uphold moral discipline in all directions [like a powerful fragrance pervades everywhere]261 and (6) attract all beings;262 (7) one will make a profit in the world;263 (8) one will obtain countless desired qualities; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a flower garland at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One’s physical body will become fragrant like a garland of flowers for the world; (2) one’s body will become purified; (3) one’s scent will always be good; (4) one will be endowed with adornments; (5) the entirety of one’s entourage will be close and (6) in harmony;264 (7) one will be appealing to all men and women; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven[F.308.b] and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.265
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a lamp266 at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will become like a lamp for the world;267 (2) one’s physical eyes will become purified and (3) one will obtain the magical eye;268 (4) one will not be shrouded in the black darkness of ignorance; (5) one will obtain the light of knowledge; (6) one will be able to distinguish between virtuous and nonvirtuous objectives; (7) even when wandering in saṃsāra, one will not be intoxicated by its darkness; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering incense at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will become like a perfume for the world; (2) one’s sense of smell will become acute; (3) the scent of one’s body will become purified and (4) one will remain forever fragrant; (5) one will have a beautiful body; (6) sentient beings will like and flock to one; (7) one will make a profit in the world;269 (8) one will obtain countless desired qualities; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a drum at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a beautiful body; (2) one will have a pleasing voice; (3) one’s speech will be pleasing; (4) one will be endowed with happiness; (5) one will always be liked; (6) all will listen to one’s words, and (7) eventually one will obtain a renowned voice; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages by building a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will be born into a noble family; (2) one’s body and one’s eyes will be beautiful and attractive;270 (3) because one will be a person of influence, one will have a large retinue and its members will be cordial with one another;271 (4) one will have abundant possessions; (5) one will become a unifying presence for all;272 (6) because renown and a good reputation are constantly being generated about oneself,[F.309.a] one will attain great fame everywhere and receive reverence from devas and humans alike; (7) eventually, one will have abundant wealth and (8) become a universal monarch; (9) one will acquire the body of a bodhisattva whose essence is [indestructible] like a diamond;273 and (10) one will quickly attain nirvāṇa.274
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of a seat. What are the ten?275 (1) One will [attain a] high [rank] in the world; (2) one will excel [in the world]; (3) to the multitude of sentient beings, one will become the resounding of joy; (4) one will have abundant possessions; and (5) one will be reborn in heaven and (6) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“Through making the offering of shoes, one gains ten advantages. What are the ten?276 (1) One will not be lacking in vehicles or mounts;277 (2) one will have excellent legs; (3) while on a journey, one will be endowed with strength throughout; (4) one’s body will not be fatigued;278 (5) while on a journey, one will not be wounded by either stone or wood; (6) one will obtain supernatural legs; (7) one will be satisfied with one’s servants;279 and (8) one will be reborn in heaven and (9) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of a bowl. What are the ten? (1) One will possess a bowl;280 (2) one will come to embody good worldly qualities; (3) one will have little thirst, and (4) when one is thirsty, one will be endowed with drink; (5) one’s mind will be supple;281 (6) one will not be reborn as a ghost; (7) one will be ever dear to devas and humans;282 (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of food. What are the ten?283 (1) One’s life will be long; (2) one will possess power; (3) one will possess physical strength; (4) one will possess good memory; (5) one will become eloquent;284 (6) having gathered followers, one will delight them;285 (7) one will make all devas and humans content; (8) one will have abundant possessions; (9) one will be happy; and (10) one will be reborn in heaven and (11) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of shelter.[F.309.b] What are the ten? (1) One will become a vassal king; (2) one will become the ruler of a province;286 (3) one will become a ruler who is unchallenged287 by others; (4) one will become the king of a continent; (5) one will become the king of two continents; (6) one will become the king of three continents; (7) one will become the king of four continents; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages from entering the path of liberation.288 What are the ten?289 (1) One will be free from attachment to children, wives, relatives, and the diversions of the world; (2) one will be free from jealousy; (3) one will be free from grasping at one’s desires; (4) one will not be unhappy dwelling in the forest;290 (5) one will venerate the Three Jewels; (6) one will be free from the state of ignorance; (7) one will be free from the factors that lead one to an unfavorable rebirth destiny; (8) one will strive for virtuous qualities; (9) one will be disengaged among devas and men;291 (10) one will always enter the path of liberation and practice the Dharma like a noble disciple of the Tathāgata; and (11) after being swiftly liberated from suffering, one will attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages through offering drink. What are the ten? (1) One’s sense faculties will be unimpaired; (2) one’s forehead will have the perfect size;292 (3) one’s words will delight all; (4) one’s mind will be supple;293 (5) one will have little thirst, and (6) when one is thirsty, one will be endowed with drink; (7) one will not be reborn as a ghost; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of a vehicle.294 What are the ten? (1) One’s legs will be supple; (2) one’s legs will be perfectly shaped; (3) when walking by foot, one’s body will not be hurt; (4) one will be without enemies; (5) one will be endowed with the bases of supernatural powers; (6) one will never lack a vehicle or mount; (7) one will have abundant possessions; (8) one will have happiness; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by dwelling in seclusion.295 What are the ten? (1) One will have abandoned large crowds; (2) one will enjoy complete solitude; (3) one’s mind will become focused on meditative absorption;[F.310.a] (4) one will engage in few activities;296 (5) one will venerate the Buddha;297 (6) one’s body will be well and at ease; (7) one will not become lost in the intermediate state between death and rebirth; (8) one will understand in detail the meaning of the Dharma, exactly as one has heard it; (9) one will fully attain the four states of imperturbability; and (10) one will fully attain knowledge.
“One gains ten advantages through begging.298 What are the ten? (1) One will become accustomed to walking; (2) one will be far from leading a sedentary life; (3) one will have abandoned pride;299 (4) one will achieve one’s own benefit,300 and (5) one will have established others in merit;301 (6) one will spread the Dharma teachings,302 and (7) thus illuminate those who will be born in the future; (8) one will not transgress the monastic discipline;303 (9) one’s mind will become clear;304 and (10) because one has entered the practice of begging305 with a mind that is completely occupied by virtuous discipline, there will be no darkness in any direction.306
“One gains ten advantages from being self-controlled and confident. What are the ten? (1) with confidence one enters a city; (2) with confidence one emerges from the city; (3) with confidence one enters a family home; (4) with confidence one explains the Dharma in an assembly;307 (5) with confidence one approaches the saṅgha; (6) with confidence one approaches308 one’s preceptor and one’s instructor; (7) one trains oneself in309 the power of loving-kindness; (8) one faultlessly uses one’s robes, alms food, mat, medicine, and other utensils;310 (9) one faultlessly performs one’s daily recitations with a loud voice; and (10) even when one’s time to die has come, one is confident.”
This is what the Bhagavān said. The young brahmin Śuka, son of Taudeya,311 having arisen from his seat and remaining to one side, knelt on his right knee and faced the Bhagavān, with palms together at his chest, paying homage, and prayed: “Bhagavān, I prostrate myself to the three rare and precious ones and take refuge.312 I beg of you—be my virtuous spiritual teacher now and forever!”
Transformation of Karma in one fascicle is completed.
In Transformation of Karma the Buddha is staying in Prince Jeta’s Grove in Śrāvastī, where he is visited by the brahmin youth Śuka, who asks the Blessed One to explain the reason why living beings appear so diversely. The Buddha answers Śuka’s question with a discourse on various categories of actions as well as rebirth and the actions leading to it. The discourse presents fifty-one categories of actions, followed by explanations of the negative consequences of transgressing the five precepts observed by all Buddhists, the advantages gained through caitya worship, and the meritorious results of specific acts of generosity.
This sūtra was translated by Bruno Galasek-Hul with the help of Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpoche of the Evam Choden Buddhist Center in Kensington (Berkeley), California. Roxanne Shooshani proofread and edited the English version. Thanks are due also to Mr. Yi Ding of Stanford University, who consulted the Chinese translations. The translator also wishes to thank Prof. Stephen Jenkins for his helpful comments.
The Dharma Scripture “Transformation of Karma” (short title: Transformation of Karma), which is presented here for the first time in an English translation, takes places in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, where the Buddha is staying with a large following of 1,250 monks. The Buddha is visited by a brahmin youth named Śuka, who requests the Buddha to explain how karmic ripening can lead to such a great diversity of beings. In response, the Buddha explains that individual karmic results are the reason for the diversity of beings, and he teaches in detail fifty-one categories of negative and positive consequences together with the specific actions that function as their causes. Next, the Buddha lists ten negative consequences for transgressing each of the five precepts: abstaining from taking life, abstaining from stealing, abstaining from sexual misconduct (here transgressing the vow of celibacy), abstaining from lying, and abstaining from consuming intoxicants. Lastly, the Buddha explains the karmic advantages that result from building and worshiping a caitya of the Tathāgata. Also enumerated are the advantages gained through making offerings and leading a religious life, living a secluded life, becoming a Buddhist mendicant, and developing confidence.
Transformation of Karma belongs to a group of Buddhist scriptures that scholars of Buddhism have called the Karmavibhaṅga or Śukasūtra class.1 The texts in this group deal extensively with the topic of karma and rebirth according to individuals’ actions. Characteristic of the treatment of karma and rebirth in these texts is their detailed, catalog-like listing of specific karmic consequences and their causative actions. It is clear, however, that this is not meant to be understood as determinism. For example, in several places the presence or absence of intention and remorse are mentioned as factors that can determine whether a particular karmic result will be experienced, whether its outcome can be influenced, and whether it can be avoided altogether.
In the Tibetan canon, Transformation of Karma is classified as a sūtra belonging to the Śrāvakayāna, and in the Degé edition of the Kangyur it is listed in the sūtra section under “various sūtras belonging to the Hīnayāna.”2 The Japanese scholar Kudo Noriyuki and others proposed that the related Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338)3 belonged to the canon of the early Buddhist ordination lineage of the Sāṃmitīyas (or Sammatīyas). The Sāṃmitīyas were a branch of the Vātsīputrīya sect, whose adherents were also known as the “Personalists” (Skt. Pudgalavādin) because they posited the existence of the individual or person (Skt. pudgala) that transmigrates from one existence to the next and is neither identical with nor different from the five aggregates. Whether Transformation of Karma, too, can be considered to have belonged to the canon of the Sāṃmitīyas, however, is difficult to say with certainty without further research.4 However, the text contains some clues that may point in that direction. The first indication is a curious statement found in 1.25, which lists as one of the karmic causes that lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras “conceiving of nonexistence with regard to the self (Skt. ātman).” If our translation of this difficult passage is correct, the view expressed therein may betray the doctrinal position of the Pudgalavādins.5 A second clue is found in 1.88, which contains the following statement: “one will not become lost in the intermediate state between death and rebirth.” We know that not all the early Buddhist sects accepted the concept of an intermediate state between death and rebirth. Those that did, according to André Bareau, included the Sarvāstivādins (Vaibhāṣikas), the Sammatīyas, the Pūrvaśailas, the later Mahīśāsakas, and the Dārṣṭāntikas.6
The Karmavibhaṅga group of texts appears to have been particularly popular in Central Asia and in China, where the continued interest in it is shown by the existence in the Chinese Tripitaka of no fewer than six different translations spanning a period of eight centuries from the late third or early fourth century
Sanskrit versions of the titles of translations of Indic texts in the Kangyur and Tengyur are traditionally given in transliteration at the beginning of the texts—but for Toh 339, the Sanskrit title differs from its Tibetan title. The Tibetan phrase rnam par ’gyur ba would suggest an original Sanskrit vikāraḥ, vikṛtiḥ, vikriyā, or vipariṇata, etc.,9 all of which belong to the English semantic field of change. The text’s transliterated Sanskrit title, on the other hand, is given as Karmavibhaṅganāmadharmagrantha, for which in Tibetan one would rather expect something like rnam par ’byed pa.10 The word vibhaṅga occurs in Buddhist literature as the title of certain works, for instance, as part of the title of one of the three major parts of the Pāli Vinaya (Suttavibhaṅga); as the title of the second, and oldest, book of the Pāli Abhidhamma (Vibhaṅga); as the Division of the Expositions (Vibhaṅgavagga), which is a section of the Majjhima Nikāya of the Pāli Canon that contains the Pāli “relatives” of the Karmavibhaṅga-group of texts (the Cūḷa- and Mahākammavibhaṅga-suttas, MN 135, 136); or as part of the title of a short work on the twelve links of dependent origination (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda) composed in Sanskrit (the Pratītyasamutpādavibhaṅganirdeśasūtra) that was found at the site of the great Indian university Nālandā, inscribed on bricks. In those contexts, Sanskrit vibhaṅga means “explanation,” in the sense of offering a more detailed explanation or elucidation—occasionally illustrated by examples, stories, or word-for-word explanations—of individual items in a list, such as the list of Vinaya rules or, in this case, a list of categories of karmically relevant actions and results. The derived meanings “exposition” and “commentary” can be regarded as generic terms applied to texts exhibiting certain stylistic features like the ones mentioned.
The final part of the Tibetan title, chos kyi gzhung (Skt. Dharmagrantha), seems to be very rare as part of the title of canonical works. A search for the expression chos kyi gzhung in the online database Resources for Kanjur and Tenjur Studies of the Tibetan Manuscripts Project of the University of Vienna yielded only the text translated here.11 Instead of translating the Tibetan rnam par ’gyur ba literally as “transformation,” “change,” or “ripening,” we have accepted the transliterated Sanskrit given in the text itself as the original title of the work, and have translated it consistent with the common Buddhist usage of the Sanskrit word vibhaṅga when applied to texts that exhibit certain characteristics.12 This choice furthermore highlights its kinship with the longer Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338).13
Mention must be made here, however, of the fact that the Kangyur editions not belonging to the Tshalpa (tshal pa) line preserve variant titles: the versions in the Stok Palace manuscript, the Shey Palace manuscript, and the Shelkar manuscript Kangyurs14—all belonging to the Thempangma (them spangs ma) line—give the Sanskrit name of the text as Karmavibhaṅganāmadharmaparyāya.15
Furthermore, the Shelkar Kangyur records as the Tibetan title las kyis rnam par ’gyur ba zhes bya ba’i chos kyi gzhung: “The Dharma Scripture Called Transformation through Karma.” If this is not simply a scribal error (the Stok and Shey Kangyurs read las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba), this title may support Sanskrit pariṇāma (“transformation,” “change,” “ripening”) as part of a possible original Sanskrit title of the work.
Yet another variant of the title should be noted. The Denkarma (Tib. ldan/lhan dkar ma), one of the three imperial catalogs of Tibetan translations made during the early transmission of the Dharma in Tibet during the eighth to ninth centuries, gives the title as las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba bstan pa’i gzhung.16
Apart from its occurrence in the title of the sūtra, we have largely avoided the lexicalized English word karma as a rendition of the Tibetan las. Instead, we translate las as “action(s).” We feel that contemporary common usage of the loanword karma is often fuzzy or unclear in that it seemingly blends together the senses “the totality of a person’s actions and conduct during successive incarnations,” a resultant state as “fate or destiny,” which is perceived to be causally influenced by the totality of a person’s actions, the “law or principle through which such influence is believed to operate,” and the woolly but popular sense of “a distinctive aura, atmosphere, or feeling.”17 We do, however, use the lexicalized adjective karmic (as, for example, in karmic result, or karmic cause and effect) in the sense of “relating to one’s action (s)” in the translation. We have furthermore used the expression karma and rebirth in this introduction knowing full well that these terms are equally difficult to define abstractly, but with the understanding that in Indic and Buddhist contexts the terms karma and rebirth are amalgamated in the term saṃsāra.
As for the “mechanics” of karmic cause and effect, the Buddha explains it in Transformation of Karma, 1.6:
“Therefore, again, the multiple varieties of sentient beings, due to their being bad, good, or middling, are karmically connected with many kinds of actions, many kinds of sufferings, and many kinds of views, in accordance with what I have taught as the black and white fruits of karmic ripening. Young brahmin, it is like this: Through carrying out black actions, sentient beings are reborn in the unfortunate rebirth destinies; they are reborn as hell beings, animals, ghosts (that is, those who have gone to the afterlife), and asuras. Through carrying out white actions, beings are reborn as devas or as humans.”
Two things are noteworthy in this passage regarding Buddhist doctrine. First is the work’s assumption of six realms of rebirth (Skt. gati). Some early Buddhist schools accepted only five realms, including the asuras in the god realm. By contrast, here the unfortunate realms or destinations of rebirth (Skt. durgati) are constituted by hell beings, animals, ghosts, and asuras; the fortunate realms or destinations of rebirth (Skt. sugati) include the devas and humans, omitting the asuras.
The second observation concerns the classification of actions into “black” and “white.” One frequently encounters this classification in Abhidharma-style works where, in an extension of the basic color metaphor, karmically efficacious action is divided into four kinds: (1) wholesome (Skt. kuśala, i.e., morally or ethically good), (2) unwholesome (Skt. akuśala, i.e., morally or ethically bad), (3) mixed (i.e., actions and results possessing both morally or ethically good and bad aspects and corresponding resultant experiences), and (4) neutral (Skt. avyākṛta or āniñjya, “undetermined” or “immovable, immobile,” e.g., the actions of an enlightened being, an arhat, etc.). For example, the Saṅgītisutta of the Dīgha Nikāya (DN 33) explains as follows: “Four kinds of kamma: There is (a) black kamma with black result, (b) bright [white] kamma with bright result, (c) black-and-bright kamma with black-and-bright result, (d) kamma that is neither black nor bright, with neither black nor bright result, leading to the destruction of kamma.”18
The same explanation, but much more technical and elaborate in its interpretive details, is found in Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya: “Action is of four types, white, black, etc. The sūtra teaches that action is of four types: black, of black retribution; white, of white retribution; black-white, of black-white retribution; neither black nor white, without black or white retribution; and that which destroys the other actions.”19
The third type, of black-white action, is further explained: “Good action of the sphere of Kāmadhātu, being mixed with the bad, is black-white; its retribution is mixed, so it is thus black-white. This definition is to be understood as applying not to the nature of the action itself, but to the ‘series’ or the person; in one and the same mental series, good action is mixed with bad action. There is no action which is black-white, nor any retribution which is black-white, which would be a contradiction.”20
The third kind of action as black-white is not specifically mentioned in Transformation of Karma’s explanations of karmic categories, but the possibility seems to be implied. For instance, when a person first experiences happiness, which later changes to the experience of unhappiness due to certain black-white actions as causes (1.44–1.48). Actions of the fourth kind, which are actions after enlightenment and which have no effect in saṃsāra, are more difficult to identify with certainty in Transformation of Karma. The explanations in 1.55, 1.57, and 1.58 seem to state that arhats are still subject to karmic punishment and reward. But they do not make any statement about the karmic efficacy (or inefficacy) of acts carried out by arhats, which was a point of contention between, for instance, the Sarvāstivādins and the Theravādins.
Three different recensions or versions of the Karmavibhaṅga are preserved in different Kangyur editions, which Kudo calls “Tib-1” (Toh 338),21 “Tib-2” (Toh 339, the text translated here), and “Tib-3,” respectively.22 The content of the third version not included in the Degé Kangyur (“Tib-3”) but found in other mixed-lineage Kangyurs and in the Themphangma Kangyurs has been explored by Walter Simon.23 Tib-3 is distinguished by the inclusion, among other things, of an introductory story that is found only in one Sanskrit manuscript, and not in Toh 338 or Toh 339. This introduction to the discourse proper tells the story of the conversion of Śuka, the son of the brahmin Taudeya, who after his death was reborn as a dog in his son’s house; he is identified by the Buddha on one of his visits to Śuka’s house during his rounds to collect alms. Śuka does not believe the Buddha’s assertion that the dog is his deceased father and at first becomes angry; but he is later convinced by the Buddha’s demonstration of the identity of the dog as his late father. After being the addressee of the Buddha’s teachings on karmic cause and effect on several occasions, Śuka eventually becomes a lay follower.
Walter Simon noted three distinguishing features of Tib-3 in comparison to Toh 338 and 339: (1) “the preservation … of the ‘introductory tale,’ ” (2) the absence of the “illustrative stories,” and (3) “the inclusion of … a table of contents.” These features, he wrote, “point to an earlier Sanskrit original.”24 Transformation of Karma, too, contains a a table of contents, and it lacks stories illustrating the various karmic categories. But, more importantly, it also lacks the introductory tale characteristic of the (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga (Lévi 1932, 21–29) and its Tibetan version in the manuscript Kangyur of the British Museum.
Like the Tib-3 version of the Karmavibhaṅga, the summary of the fifty-one karmic categories at the beginning of Transformation of Karma (1.8–1.63) does not include the items contained in 1.64–1.68 (a list of ten negative consequences each of the actions of killing, stealing, lying, unchastity, and drinking alcohol) or 1.69–1.90 (the advantages gained by making various offerings at caityas). The Tib-3 version contains the advantages of venerating and making offerings at caityas, but it does not contain the list of five negative actions and their consequences included in 1.64–1.68 of Transformation of Karma. It is reasonable to argue, therefore, that 1.64–1.68 of Transformation of Karma, and perhaps a portion of 1.69–1.90, are later additions to the text.
As we have already mentioned, no complete Sanskrit version of Transformation of Karma is extant. In his study of the Khotanese fragments of the Karmavibhaṅga, Mauro Maggi remarks that Transformation of Karma “corresponds” to “S2” (that is, a manuscript fragment of the Śukasūtra from Eastern Turkestan, in the British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections, London, which was edited by A. F. R. Hoernle in 1916 and reproduced in Lévi 1932, 235–36).25 However, Sylvain Lévi had already observed that although the two texts—the Central Asian Sanskrit fragment and the Tibetan text of Transformation of Karma Toh 339 (i.e., Lévi’s “T2”)—exhibit a family likeness, they are different.26 A careful comparison of Lévi’s edition of the extant Sanskrit portions of the Śukasūtra fragment from Central Asia (paragraphs VIII–XII) with the corresponding paragraphs in the Tibetan text of Transformation of Karma confirms Lévi’s observation.
To sum up, no exactly corresponding Sanskrit source text of the Tibetan translation of Transformation of Karma seems to be extant. Nevertheless, due to their similarity, the Sanskrit fragment of the Central Asian recension allowed us to throw some light on certain obscure terms in the Tibetan text.
Regrettably, we possess no information about who translated the text or when. The Tibetan text in the Degé edition (as well as in the other editions) has no colophon, which usually provides this information, and according to the Tōhoku catalog, the identity of the translator(s) is unknown.27 It is not possible at this point to establish the relationship between these different extant versions of the text, and Transformation of Karma thus seems to be the sole textual witness of yet another recension or a different version in the Karmavibhaṅga or Śukasūtra group.
Nevertheless, we have frequently consulted (in a rather unsystematic way and as indicated in the footnotes) the extant Sanskrit witnesses: the two Sanskrit manuscripts in the National Archives of Nepal, Kathmandu, published by Lévi in 1932 and Kudo in 2004; the two-folio fragment of a different recension, published by Fukita in 1990 and Kudo in 2004; a Kuchean Sanskrit fragment of the Śukasūtra, published by Lévi in 1932; and the Pāli (MN 135, 136), Tibetan (Toh 338), and Khotanese (in English translation by Maggi in 1995) versions of the related (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga (Lévi 1932) to aid our understanding of this often obscure Tibetan text.
The Tibetan text of Toh 339 is notable for its idiosyncrasies. It contains several nonstandard expressions and names of Buddhist concepts that are worthy of mention, such as ngan pa, ring du ’khyams pa, and mya ngan bsring(s).28 Furthermore, it contains an idiosyncratic rendering of the four formless meditative absorptions (Skt. ārūpyasamāpatti) or, as they are called in Transformation of Karma, “the four states of imperturbability.” These observations lead us to believe that the translation of Transformation of Karma predates the third Tibetan language revision or language reform of 814
What we can safely say, though, is that Transformation of Karma represents a translation that does not strictly adhere to the reformed, standardized language that was prescribed by decree for the translations from Indic originals in the ninth-century Tibetan manuals for translators, the Mahāvyutpatti and the sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa.
It is generally assumed that the Tibetan translation activity of the first dissemination of the Dharma began around the middle of the eighth century
This translation into English was made directly from the Tibetan text of the Degé edition with the help of its parallel versions. However, mention must be made of the pioneering French translation by Léon Feer in 1883. This French Sanskritist and Orientalist, who was the first to translate Kangyur materials into a European language, gave us the first translation of Transformation of Karma in a European language in his Fragments: Extraits du Kandjour.35 However, Feer did not have at his disposal the wealth of material on the Karmavibhaṅga group of texts that we have today, and he was thus unable to consult similar or related versions of the text to assist him in his efforts to make sense of obscure and difficult passages in the Tibetan text. Our translation refers frequently to Feer’s translation in the notes, especially where Feer’s interpretation of the Tibetan deviates from ours.36 However, our translation should not be considered definitive or final. Rather, it is an attempt to improve upon Feer’s where possible.
Since the text itself is not very long, and the Tibetan text in the Kangyur does not have any chapter subdivisions, we have likewise refrained from inserting any such divisions. We have, however, referenced Feer’s sensible general outline of the text in the notes to the translation. Feer divided the text into three main parts, each with subdivisions and individually numbered paragraphs, and in the notes to our translation we have noted his general division of the text.
In producing the translation, we have used the Degé edition (siglum D) as the basis. We have also perused the Comparative Edition of the Kangyur (Tib. dpe bsdur ma) (A), together with its list of variant readings. Where the Degé text seemed ambiguous or was not readily comprehensible, we have directly consulted two versions of the text belonging to the Thempangma line, namely, the Stok Palace manuscript Kangyur (S) and the Shey Palace manuscript Kangyur from Ladakh (Z). For variant readings that affect the meaning of a passage, we have done our best to provide an alternative English translation in the notes. Where we were unable to provide an alternative translation for a variant (e.g., because we didn’t understand it) that nevertheless seemed significant enough to be recorded, the variant is followed by a question mark. Except for the two witnesses (S and Z) belonging to the Thempangma line, all other variant readings (of the Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, Choné, Narthang, Urga, and Lhasa editions of the Kangyur; see Abbreviations for their sigla) are taken from list of variants in the Comparative Edition edition.
Thus did I hear at one time:37 The Bhagavān was staying in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, together with a large assembly of twelve hundred fifty monks.38
On that occasion the brahmin youth Śuka,39 the son of Taudeya, went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Upon his arrival, he exchanged many courteous and amiable pleasantries with the Bhagavān and remained standing to one side.40 The brahmin youth Śuka, the son of Taudeya, then addressed the Bhagavān with the following question: “Gautama, if I ask you a small question, will you kindly give an answer?”41
The Bhagavān replied, “Young brahmin, ask whatever you like! I will answer.”
Then the brahmin youth Śuka, the son of Taudeya, asked the Bhagavān the following question: “Sir42 Gautama, there are many types of sentient beings, such as beings who have a short lifespan or a long lifespan, have many illnesses or few illnesses, are ugly or beautiful, have little power or are powerful, are highborn or lowborn, are poor or rich, are ignorant of the Dharma,43 or possess knowledge of the Dharma to a lesser or greater degree, have good or bad fortune, and so forth. How does karmic ripening lead to this diversity of beings?”44
The Bhagavān replied, “Young brahmin, listen45 and pay careful attention to what I shall explain.46 Young brahmin, sentient beings are the owners of their actions committed in former lives;47 sentient beings have actions as their heritage, actions as their origin, actions as their individual causes; sentient beings develop through actions, young brahmin.48[F.299.b]
“Therefore, again, the multiple varieties of sentient beings, due to their being bad, good, or middling, are karmically connected with many kinds of actions, many kinds of sufferings, and many kinds of views, in accordance with what I have taught as the black and white fruits of karmic ripening.49 Young brahmin, it is like this: Through carrying out black actions, sentient beings are reborn in the unfortunate rebirth destinies;50 they are reborn as hell beings, animals, ghosts (that is, those who have gone to the afterlife51), and asuras.52 Through carrying out white actions, beings are reborn as devas or as humans.
“Therefore, young brahmin, as a result of one’s actions,53 one’s life is short or long, one has many or few illnesses, one is ugly or beautiful, one is insignificant or influential, one is lowborn54 or highborn, one is poor or rich, one is ignorant of the Dharma,55 or one has extensive knowledge of the Dharma;56 as a result of one’s actions, one is reborn as a hell being, an animal, a ghost, an asura, a human, a deva possessing a physical body,57 or a deva without a physical body; as a result of one’s actions, one’s rebirth is determinate in accordance with the action,58 one’s rebirth is indeterminate,59 there is rebirth in a foreign country, there is rebirth through carrying out an action without intent,60 there is rebirth when one has intended an action but not carried it out, there is rebirth when one has intended an action and carried it out,[F.300.a] and there is rebirth when one has neither intended an action nor carried it out. There are also actions that, when accumulated,61 lead to rebirth into a new existence only after the lifespan in hell has been completed; furthermore, there are actions that, when accumulated, lead to rebirth into a new existence after only half the lifespan in hell is exhausted, as well as actions that lead to rebirth immediately upon arriving in hell.62 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to future unhappiness following upon past happiness.63 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to to future happiness following upon past unhappiness.64 There are actions that, when accumulated by people and sentient beings,65 lead to future happiness following upon past happiness. There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to miserliness, to being poor and generous, to being wealthy and generous, and to being poor and miserly. There are individuals whose lifespans are exhausted but not their actions,66 there are individuals whose actions are exhausted but not their lifespans, and there are individuals whose lifespans and actions are simultaneously exhausted. There are individuals who will eliminate their sufferings although neither their lifespans nor their actions are exhausted. There are individuals who will become unwell in their minds while their bodies are well.67 There are actions that lead an individual to be well in their mind while their body is unwell,68 or to be well in mind and body,69 or to be unwell in both mind and body.70 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to having a body that is graceful,71 beautiful looking, and pretty, with a nice and glossy complexion, a feast for the eyes, although an individual is reborn in an inferior form of existence.72 There are actions that, when accumulated, lead to having an inferior physique,[F.300.b] a crude body and an unpleasant and unsightly appearance for an individual reborn in an inferior form of existence. Furthermore, young brahmin, it is like this: through carrying out the ten nonvirtuous courses of action, conditions in one’s environment will deteriorate.73
“Now, in what way does action lead to a short74 lifespan?75 Due to ten factors,76 one’s lifespan will be shortened. What are the ten?77 (1) Taking life,78 (2) encouraging others to take life,79 (3) speaking praise of killing, (4) resolving to80 kill, (5) aborting a fetus, (6) encouraging abortion, (7) wishing one’s enemy to be killed, (8) feeling joy at the death of one’s foe,81 (9) preparing the ground for slaughtering animals and killing them there, and (10) watching a battle and delighting in it.82 Through these ten factors, one’s lifespan will be shortened, and one will suffer many illnesses.
“How can one achieve a long life through carrying out good actions? Ten factors lead to a long life. What are the ten? (1) Abstaining from killing; (2) preventing others from killing; (3) speaking praise of abstaining from killing; (4) resolving to abstain from killing; (5) freeing sentient beings who have been captured in order to be slaughtered; (6) freeing imprisoned humans who are to be executed; (7) giving refuge to sentient beings83 who are frightened and terrified; (8) having a compassionate attitude toward those who are without protection; (9) embracing with one’s love those who are ill; and (10) giving clothing, food, and drink to the destitute. Through these ten factors, one will have a long life and be free from illness.
“In what way does action lead to having many illnesses? Ten factors lead to having many illnesses. What are the ten? (1) Beating somebody with a stick, with the hand,84 or with something else; (2) encouraging someone to beat somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (3) praising the action of beating somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (4) resolving to beat somebody with a stick, with the hand, or with something else; (5) distressing one’s parents; (6) distressing monks and nuns;85 (7) feeling joy about one’s enemies falling ill;[F.301.a] (8) feeling joy when one’s enemies do not recover from an illness; (9) giving them the wrong medicine; and (10) eating indigestible food.86 These are the ten. Through these ten factors, one will have many illnesses.
“How will one have few illnesses through carrying out good actions? Ten factors lead to having few illnesses. What are the ten? (1) Not beating somebody with a stick, with one’s hand, or with something else; (2) preventing others87 from beating somebody with a stick, with their hands, or with something else; (3) not speaking praise of beating somebody with a stick, with a hand, or with something else; (4) resolving not to beat88 somebody with a stick, with one’s hand, or with something else; (5) serving89 one’s ill parents; (6) serving monks and nuns when they are ill; (7) being unhappy when one’s enemies have fallen ill; (8) feeling joy when one’s enemies recover from an illness; (9) giving medicine to the sick; and (10) eating digestible food.90 These are the ten. Through these ten factors, one will have few illnesses.
“In what way does action lead to ugliness?91 Ten factors lead to ugliness. What are the ten? (1) Anger; (2) inflicting harm;92 (3) holding a grudge,93 even for a trifle; (4) rage; (5) reviling one’s parents;94 (6) reviling monks and nuns;95 (7) corrupting the dwelling of monks and nuns;96 (8) extinguishing the offering lamps at a caitya97 of the Tathāgata;9899 (9) treating ugly persons with contempt;100 and (10) being uncleanly.101 These are the ten factors.102
“In what way does action lead to being beautiful?103 Ten factors lead to being beautiful. What are the ten? (1) Non-hatred; (2) donating clothing; (3) sweeping often at a caitya of the Tathāgata; (4) sweeping clean the shrine hall; (5) speaking pleasingly to one’s parents; (6) speaking pleasingly to monks and nuns;104 (7) not treating ugly persons with contempt;105 and (8) being very cleanly.106 These are the ten factors.107
“In what way does action lead to having little power?108 Ten factors lead to having little power. What are the ten? (1) Envying others’ achievements;109 (2) being happy when others fail; (3) being unhappy about others’ attainments; (4) being happy about others’ unhappiness,[F.301.b] dishonor, bad reputation, obscurity, and criticism;110 (5) being unhappy about others’ happiness, glory, good reputation, and renown; (6) not venerating111 one’s parents and one’s virtuous spiritual teacher; (7) not serving monks and nuns;112 (8) generating the roots of unwholesome states with regard to those who have little power;113 (9) cutting off the roots of wholesome states with regard to those who are powerful;114 and (10) praising those who act wickedly. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to possessing power? Ten factors lead to being powerful. What are the ten? (1) Not envying others’ achievements; (2) rejoicing in others’ achievements; (3) not rejoicing in others’ failures; (4) not rejoicing in others’ unhappiness, disgrace, bad reputation, obscurity, or criticism; (5) rejoicing in others’ happiness, glory, good reputation, and renown; (6) arousing the mind of enlightenment; (7) erecting a stūpa and (8) a caitya for the Tathāgata;115 (9) cutting off the roots of unwholesome states with regard to those who are powerless;116 and (10) generating the roots of wholesome states with regard to those who are powerful. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being lowborn? Ten factors lead to being lowborn. What are the ten? (1) Not honoring one’s parents;117 (2) not honoring118 ascetics;119 (3) not honoring brahmins; (4) not esteeming those of noble birth;120 (5) not serving, not respecting,121 or not regaling122 one’s monastic preceptor,123 one’s teacher, or those who have entered the path of liberation;124 (6) not revering one’s parents; (7) showing contempt for and not venerating one’s monastic preceptor, one’s teacher, or those who have entered the path of liberation; (8) shunning those coming from powerful families; and (9) commending people who do bad deeds. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being highborn? Ten factors lead to being highborn. What are the ten? (1) Commemorating one’s parents; (2) honoring those who have entered the path of liberation; (3) honoring brahmins; (4) esteeming those who are of noble birth;125[F.302.a] (5) arising from one’s seat and preparing it,126 bowing respectfully, and then offering one’s seat and so forth to one’s monastic preceptor, one’s teacher, those who have entered the path of liberation, and those others who apply themselves to the path [of liberation];127128 (6) venerating one’s parents; (7) venerating one’s preceptors, teachers, those who have entered the path of liberation, and others;129 (8) making no distinction between one who is of high social status and one who is of low social status, and equating them; (9) planting the life tree inside a stūpa of the Tathāgata; and (10) hanging floral wreaths and raising parasols. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to poverty? Ten factors lead to becoming poor. What are the ten? (1) Stealing;130 (2) encouraging others to commit theft; (3) commending theft; (4) resolving to steal; (5) depriving one’s parents of their sustenance; (6) depriving one’s preceptors, teachers, or those who have entered the path of liberation of their temples,131 living quarters, offerings, or service;132 (7) being unhappy about others’ gains;133 (8) rejoicing in others’ losses;134 (9) hindering others from obtainment; and (10) wishing135 for a famine to occur. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to wealth? Ten factors lead to becoming rich. What are the ten? (1) Abstaining from stealing; (2) encouraging others to give up stealing; (3) rejoicing when others give up stealing; (4) providing one’s parents with sustenance;136 (5) providing one’s monastic preceptor,137 one’s teacher, and the other members of the monastic saṅgha138 with a temple, living quarters, service,139 robes, a bed,140 medicine141 to cure illness, a servant,142 or sustenance; (6) having joyful thoughts about others’ gains; (7) making an effort so that others can acquire [wealth];143 (8) not rejoicing in others’ losses; (9) praying for a good harvest everywhere;144 and (10) rejoicing in the actions of those who practice generosity and so forth liberally. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to being ignorant of the Dharma?145 Ten factors lead to being ignorant of the Dharma. What are the ten? (1) Not valuing inquiry of a qualified person,146 (2) fostering all that is not the true Dharma, (3) abandoning the true Dharma, (4) not honoring and venerating those who teach the true Dharma, (5) praising well those who speak inconsequentially,147148 (6) attending to and serving those who are ignorant of the Dharma, (7) abandoning those who are truly learned in the Dharma,149 (8) regarding wrong views as authoritative and praising them,[F.302.b] (9) abandoning correct views, and (10) abandoning those who are knowledgeable. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to possessing extensive knowledge of the Dharma?150 Ten factors lead to possessing extensive knowledge of the Dharma. What are the ten? (1) Valuing inquiries of anyone using a progression of questions;151 (2) not attending to, not serving, not honoring, and not venerating unlearned ascetics, brahmins, and persons who are ignorant of the Dharma; (3) attending to, serving, honoring, and venerating learned persons; (4) giving up all that is not the true Dharma; (5) fostering the true Dharma; (6) cultivating fearlessness toward persons who are worthy receptacles of the Dharma;152 (7) praising by saying, ‘Well done!’ those who speak pleasing words that are true; (8) not praising by saying, ‘Well done!’ those who speak ill of others;153 (9) not lauding wrong view; and (10) praising right view. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a hell being? Ten factors lead to hell. What are the ten? (1) Engaging a grave154 evil deed with the body, (2) engaging in a grave evil deed with the speech, (3) engaging in a grave evil deed with the mind, (4) holding the wrong view of annihilation, (5) holding the wrong view of eternalism, (6) holding the wrong view that actions are without consequences,155 (7) destroying others’ welfare, (8) speaking ill of monks and nuns,156 and (9) instigating them to transgress their vows of celibacy.157 These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as an animal? Ten factors lead to rebirth as an animal. What are the ten? (1) Engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s body; (2) engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s speech; (3) engaging in a middling bad deed with one’s mind;158 (4) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of desire;159 (5) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of anger; (6) carrying out actions motivated by different kinds of confusion; (7) giving inappropriate gifts; (8) being aggressive toward those who have been reborn as animals; (9) being reborn as a lion through the power of aspiration of the bodhisattva;160 and (10) being reborn as a monkey, like a certain brahmin,161 which was due to making a foulmouthed remark. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the realm of ghosts?162 Ten factors lead to rebirth in the realm of ghosts: (1) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s body,[F.303.a] (2) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s speech, (3) engaging in a minor bad deed with one’s mind, (4) having a desire for base things,163 (5) having very strong desire,164 (6) pursuing a wrong way of making a living, (7) being stingy and tightfisted, (8) obstructing others in making offerings, (9) having died while under the influence of sexual desire, and (10) having died while being hungry and thirsty. These are the ten factors.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras? Ten factors lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras. What are the ten? (1) Frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s body, (2) frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s speech, (3) frequently committing minor bad deeds with one’s mind, (4) conceit,165 (5) conceiving of oneself as having no equal, (6) conceiving of oneself as being greater than one’s equals,166 (7) conceiving of oneself as being greater than those who are superior, (8) conceiving of oneself as being superior to those who are supreme, (9) conceiving of nonexistence with regard to the self,167168 and (10) dedicating one’s roots of wholesome states to false aspirations.169 These are the ten. These ten factors will lead to rebirth in the realm of the asuras.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth in the human realm? Ten factors lead to rebirth in the human realm. What are the ten? By not violating and not corrupting the ten virtuous courses of action, one will be reborn in the human realm.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure?170 Ten factors lead to rebirth as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure. By not violating, and remaining diligently committed171 to, the ten virtuous courses of action, one will be reborn as a deva in one of the six heavens of sensuous pleasure.
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body? Ten factors lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body. What are the ten? While one is devoted to the ten virtuous courses of action, one brings the six perfections and the four boundless states to perfection—this will lead to rebirth as a deva possessing a physical body.172
“In what way does action lead to rebirth as a deva without a physical body?173 Practicing the ten virtuous factors and the four states of imperturbability174 leads to rebirth as a deva without a physical body. As for the four states of imperturbability:175
1. “One transcends all materiality by contemplating the infinity of space, so that, when all names designating physical objects176 have become inexpressible and void,177 one goes beyond labeling and imagining the manifold phenomena,[F.303.b] but one does not grasp178 at the stillness179 that is produced by180 the sphere of infinite space.
2. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of infinite space, one contemplates the infinity of consciousness, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of infinite consciousness.
3. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of infinite consciousness, one contemplates that nothing at all exists, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of nothingness.
4. “Having completely transcended the entire sphere of nothingness, one contemplates that neither mind nor no-mind exists, but one does not grasp at the stillness that is produced by the sphere of neither mind nor no-mind.
“It is through these four factors181 that one will be reborn as a deva in the formless realm.
“How does action lead to a predetermined rebirth?182 Having carried out actions based on the roots of wholesome states, one dedicates them to whichever rebirth location one has aspired to;183 or one commits the evil actions that bring immediate karmic retribution. In these ways, one’s rebirth will have the nature of being predetermined.
“How can rebirth be changed through action?184 A person carries out a virtuous action and makes an aspiration prayer—by virtue of this action, that person’s rebirth destiny can be changed.185
“How does action cause a person to be reborn in another country? After one has contemplated with strong faith either the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, or any person who possesses moral discipline, one makes an offering and prays to be reborn in another country.186 According to whatever [other] actions one has committed, their good or bad187 [karmic results] are exemplified in the story of the merchant: his actions ripened after he had traveled to a foreign country.188
“What kind of action is considered to be carried out without intent?189 Having carried out an action, one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong, and confesses; one does not give up effacing it, one does not engage in it again, and one vows not to do it again in the future. This kind of action[F.304.a] is considered to be carried out without intent.
“What kind of action190 is considered to be intended but not carried out? An action was not physically carried out191 if, when the thought welled up192 and at that moment one said, ‘I will do this,’ one did not carry it out. This kind of action is considered to be intended but not carried out.
“What kind of action is considered to be intended and carried out?193 Whatever action one has carried out, one does not feel remorse, is not conscience stricken, does not think that it was a mistake, does not confess, does not try to efface it, engages in it again, and does not vow to not do it again in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn194 again as a hell being after completion of the full lifespan of the hell realm?195 Suppose one has carried out an intentional action that leads to rebirth in hell, and one does not feel remorse, is not conscience stricken, does not consider one’s action a mistake, does not consider it inappropriate, does not confess, does not try to efface it, engages again in this evil action, even vows to commit this action again in the future, rejoices in this action, and admires such action. A person who has accumulated such an action will be reborn in the hell realm, and after completion of the full lifespan of the hell realm, will again be reborn in hell.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn again as a hell being after only half of the lifespan in that hell has elapsed? Suppose one has carried out an action that leads to rebirth in hell, but one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, and thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong; and one confesses, does not give up effacing it, does not engage in this evil action again, and vows not to commit this action again in the future. While one who has accumulated this kind of action will be reborn as a hell being, one will subsequently take rebirth after only half the lifespan in that hell has elapsed.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person who has been born in a hell realm to be reborn immediately upon rebirth in the hells? Suppose one has carried out an intentional action that leads to rebirth in hell, but one feels remorse, is conscience stricken, thinks that one has made a mistake and that it was wrong;[F.304.b] and one confesses, does not give up effacing it, does not engage in this evil action again, and vows not to commit it again in the future; and later, one is unhappy about having carried out such an action, dispenses with, shuns, and renounces this action, and arouses an intense sense of renunciation.196 The person who has accumulated such an action will take rebirth immediately upon being born into the hell realm, as did King Ajātaśatru, for example.197
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be happy at first, and become unhappy later? Suppose one makes a donation but does not give joyfully.198 By failing to make one’s mind happy and joyful, one feels regret after having given. Then, when one is reborn as a human, one will be born into a wealthy family, richly endowed with wealth and possessions. Having become an important person of high rank, one will have many ministers, assistants, relatives, and clan members;199 one will have many possessions; and one’s treasury and granary will always be well filled. One will be happy and possess many mounts and carriages.200 Throughout, one is enjoying happiness, but later it diminishes and is exhausted. Having thus arrived at unhappiness, the person who has accumulated such an action consequently is powerful, wealthy, and happy at first; but later, weakened by hunger, becomes unhappy.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be unhappy at first, and happy in the future as a karmic result?201 Suppose one makes an offering without faith at first, but later one’s mind grows faithful and one feels elated.202 If one is reborn as a human, one will be born into a poor family. Food and possessions will be scarce. From a state of being distressed and without food and clothing, one will later become powerful, wealthy, and happy, and everything will increase. A person who has thus come to lack nothing203 is unhappy at first but becomes happy in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be happy at first, and happy in the future? Suppose that one makes a lavish offering and gives it joyfully, and that because of giving, one’s own mind becomes happy, and one does not have regrets later. The karmic fruit for one such as this, if reborn as human, is that one will be born into a wealthy family and enjoy abundant wealth. After becoming an important person of high rank, one will have many ministers,[F.305.a] assistants, relatives, and clan members; one will have plentiful possessions, and the granary will always be full. One will be profoundly happy and possess many mounts and carriages. Born in such a family, happiness of that kind will arise and increase.204 Therefore, a person, by accumulating such an action, will be happy at first, and in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be unhappy at first, and unhappy in the future as a karmic result?205 Suppose one has abandoned one’s virtuous friend, no one at all has encouraged one to engage in generosity, and one also has not made any offerings to others on one’s own accord. If one such as this is reborn as a human, one will be poor and famished, lacking food and drink, lacking clothing, and therefore living in distress, or one will live without food, drink, or clothing. Also, in the future, due to those conditions one will not become happy or enjoy an increase in resources. One who has accumulated such an action will not be happy at first and will also be unhappy in the future.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be stingy although being wealthy as a karmic result? Suppose one is not at all magnanimous toward worthy recipients of offerings and offers only a small amount; through being parsimonious when giving, while nonetheless making it a habit, one will be born in a wealthy family. Although one will have at one’s disposal extensive wealth and many possessions, one will be stingy. A person who has accumulated such an action will, although wealthy, be very stingy.
“What kind of action leads a person to be wealthy and generous as a karmic result?206 Suppose one offers lavishly and has developed the habit of making very a large offering to a worthy recipient of offerings. If one is reborn as a human, one will be reborn into a wealthy family; one can lead a life of abundance in food and possessions,207 and one will be a generous person. The accumulation of such an action leads to being wealthy and generous.
“What kind of action leads a person to be poor and generous as a karmic result? Suppose one offers lavishly and has made it a habit to make a large offering to those who are not worthy recipients of offerings. If one is reborn as a human, one will be reborn into a poor family,[F.305.b] will not be able to lead a life of abundance in food and possessions, and will suffer hardship.208 But even though one does not have enough clothing or food to provide for one’s own life, one is generous. A person who has accumulated such an action will be poor and generous.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be poor and stingy? Suppose one has abandoned one’s virtuous friend, no one at all has encouraged one to engage in generosity, and neither has one made any offerings on one’s own accord209—but one has not intentionally carried out any evil actions—then, even if one were to be reborn as a human, one would be born into a poor family. One would live without food or possessions and suffer hardship. Constantly toiling to obtain clothing and food, one will be stingy. A person who has accumulated such an action will be poor and stingy.
“What kind of persons have exhausted their lifespans but not the potential of their past actions?210 Suppose that someone, although having passed away in the hell realm, is subsequently reborn in hell; or having passed away as an animal, is reborn as an animal; or having passed away in the ghost realm, is reborn as a ghost; or having passed away in the realm of asuras, is reborn as an asura; or having died as a human, is reborn as a human. Such persons have exhausted their lifespans but not the potential of their past actions.
“What kind of persons have exhausted the potential of their past actions but not their lifespans? Those who formerly were happy and later became unhappy; or those who formerly were unhappy and later became happy. Such persons have exhausted the potential of their past actions but not their lifespans.
“What kind of persons have exhausted both the potential of their past actions and their lifespans? Suppose a person, having passed away in the hell realm, is reborn as an animal; or having passed away as an animal, is reborn as a ghost; or having passed away as a ghost, is reborn as an asura; or having passed away as an asura, is reborn as a human; or having passed away as a human, is reborn as a god. Such persons have exhausted both the potential of their past actions and their lifespans.
“What kind of persons, through which kind of action, have eliminated suffering while neither their lifespans nor the potential of their past actions is exhausted? The stream enterers, the once-returners, the non-returners, and the arhats—these individuals have eliminated suffering, although they have indeed neither exhausted the potential of their past actions nor their lifespans.
“What kind of person is well in body but not in mind?[F.306.a] An ordinary worldly person who,211 after having acquired merit, becomes a universal monarch—this kind of person is well in body but not in mind.212
“What kind of person is well in their mind but not in their body? An arhat who has not accumulated merit but whose ethical conduct is perfect. A person such as Lekuñcika,213 who is an arhat, is well in mind, but his body is not well.
“What kind of person is well in both mind and body? An arhat who has accumulated merit, a person like Śaivala,214 whose ethical conduct is perfect, is well in both mind and body.
“What kind of persons are unwell in their minds and in their bodies? Ordinary, worldly persons who have not accumulated any merit. Such persons are unwell both in their minds and in their bodies.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be born into an inferior form of existence with a body that is healthy, pleasant, pretty, beautiful in color, with a brilliant complexion, and beautiful to behold? A person who, motivated by desire, has violated their moral discipline, when reborn in the lower realms, will have a body that is healthy, pleasant, and pretty.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be born into an inferior form of existence with a body that is inferior, coarse, ugly, and revolting?215 When a person has an angry disposition and is unable to keep moral discipline, after accumulating the corresponding action, is reborn in an inferior form of existence, they will possess a body that is inferior, coarse, ugly, and revolting.
“What kind of action, when accumulated, leads a person to be born into an inferior form of existence, foul smelling, and with impaired, missing, or inadequate sense organs? When a person has a disposition toward confusion and is unable to keep moral discipline, and after accumulating the corresponding action is reborn in an inferior form of existence, they will be foul smelling and have impaired, missing, or inadequate sense organs.
“How will one’s external environment216 deteriorate by reason of carrying out the ten nonvirtuous actions?217 As a consequence218 of killing,[F.306.b] the earth will lose its color;219 as a consequence of stealing, the land will be hit by hail and infested by birds, mice, and insects; through the act of leading an unchaste life, one will be born in a place beset by fog, wind, dust, and dust storms; the karmic result of lying is a bad taste in one’s mouth, and one’s breath will be foul smelling; the karmic result of frequently exercising divisive speech is that one will be born in a land where the ground is uneven,220 rugged, and unclean—a land where the skin disease called rkong221 is prevalent and where heaps of stones are scattered everywhere; the karmic result of trivial talk is that one will be born in a country with many ravines, where the trees, branches, and foliage all have thorns, and which is covered by a dense jungle;222 the karmic result of greed is that grain and fruit will be scanty; as a consequence of hatred,223 grain and fruit will be pungent, sour, and bitter; and through the act of holding wrong views and causing others to have wrong views, grain and fruit will be scanty and of inferior quality. By engaging in the ten nonvirtuous actions in this way, one’s external environment224 will deteriorate and one will be born in unpleasant places.”225
And the Bhagavān declared in addition, “Young brahmin,226 you should furthermore understand and know that there are ten negative consequences of killing.227 What are the ten? (1) One will have numerous enemies; (2) one will have an ugly appearance; (3) one’s life will be short; (4) one will think about evil actions; (5) one will frighten sentient beings; (6) one will constantly fall asleep feeling sad; (7) one will constantly awaken feeling sad; (8) one will dream about sins228 and later have regrets; (9) one will think about and carry out actions that lead to having a short lifespan; and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states229 and be reborn in hell.
“The karmic ripening of stealing leads to ten negative consequences.230 What are the ten? (1) One will become an enemy; (2) one will feel qualms; (3) one will walk about inappropriately;231 (4) one will roam about at night; (5) one will be conjoined with every evil companion;232 (6) one will be bereft of any virtuous friends;233 (7) one will be incapable of keeping a household;234 (8) one will be put on trial and convicted by the king; (9) one will constantly think about and carry out actions[F.307.a] that lead to others’ unhappiness; and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states and be reborn in hell.
“One should recognize that leading an unchaste life leads to ten negative consequences. What are the ten? (1) One will sleep with others’ spouses; (2) one will seek an opportunity [to sleep with others’ spouses]; (3) one will quarrel with one’s spouse; (4) one’s partner will leave one; (5) all kinds of nonvirtuous personal qualities will arise, and virtuous qualities will steadily diminish; (6) one will not find true protection; (7) one’s family will not be truly protected; (8) one will feel anxiety; (9) one will contemplate and carry out actions that turn one’s relatives, friends, and fellow clansmen into enemies; and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states and be reborn in hell.
“When one lies, ten negative consequences ensue. What are the ten? (1) Around the liar’s body, deities will not congregate; (2) instead, nonhuman spirits will gather; (3) others will deceive one; (4) one’s word will be unreliable; (5) one will always have bad breath; (6) everybody will mistrust one, even when one speaks honestly; (7) people will say that it is wrong to ask such a great liar anything; (8) one will become known as someone with a bad reputation and without commendation; (9) one will habitually contemplate and carry out actions that are regarded as evil,235 leading to the situation in which nobody listens to what one says;236 and (10) after one has died and parted with the physical body, one will fall down into bad states and be reborn in hell.
“One should know the negative consequences associated with drinking alcohol that lead to thirty-five kinds237 of heedlessness. Which thirty-five? (1) The wealth that one is currently experiencing will dissipate;238 (2) one’s faith [in the Three Jewels] will dissipate;239 (3) quarrels and disputes will arise; (4) one will neither feel embarrassment nor have a guilty conscience;240 (5) drinking makes one disgrace oneself; (6) drinking makes one’s knowledge deteriorate; (7) previously unaccumulated happiness241 will not be accumulated in the future;242 (8) the happiness that one has accumulated will diminish and eventually disappear completely; (9) one will reveal secrets; (10) one will neglect one’s duties; (11) one will become feeble and sickly; (12) one will be a source of suffering [for others];243 (13) one will not honor one’s mother; (14) one will not honor one’s father; (15) one will not honor those who have entered the path of liberation; (16) one will not honor brahmins; (17) one will not show respect and reverence for those of noble birth; (18) one will not venerate the Buddha; (19) one will not venerate the Dharma;[F.307.b] (20) one will not venerate the Saṅgha; (21) instead, one will venerate immoral friends; (22) one will completely abandon and loathe virtuous friends; (23) one will not have a guilty conscience; (24) one will not be afraid of embarrassment; (25) one will neglect one’s appearance;244 (26) one will be heedless with regard to sexual misconduct; (27) one will be considered unattractive by many beings; (28) one will be despised by many; (29) one will abandon noble families, relatives, and fellow clansmen;245 (30) one will fully embrace that which is not the true Dharma; (31) one will completely abandon the true Dharma; (32) the people above one246 will turn away from one in disgust, saying, ‘This one is not commendable because of his bad behavior’; (33) one will be separated from nirvāṇa for a long time; (34) one will ponder how to get drunk,247 and one will make ignoble mistakes in very many ways; and (35) after one has died, one will fall down into the hell realms and, even if one is without a physical body, one will go to a bad state. Therefore, [alcohol] should not be drunk and should be abandoned by everyone, high and low.248
“Young brahmin,249 one will gain ten advantages250 through worshiping with devotion, with the palms of one’s hands joined in reverence, at the caitya of the Sugata. What are the ten? (1) One will be born into a noble family; (2) one will have a tall body; (3) one will have many servants; (4) one will have great veneration and reverence toward one’s parents; (5) one will have great wealth; (6) one will have great erudition; (7) one will possess faith; (8) one will have a good memory and (9) vast knowledge; and (10) one will obtain a sure path to heaven.
“One will gain ten advantages from prostrating oneself before a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a beautiful body; (2) one will have a pleasant voice; (3) all will listen to one’s words; (4) all one’s servants will praise one; (5) one will be endowed with happiness; (6) one will be influential among devas and (7) humans; (8) one’s possessions will be abundant;251 (9) one will be reborn in heaven; and (10) one will quickly attain even nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a parasol at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will be like a parasol,252 (2) one will not cause harm to the world,253 (3) one will become the object of [people’s] aspirations,254 (4) one will gain worldly power,255 (5) one will act on one’s intentions,256 (6) eventually one will attain the state of a universal monarch,257 (7) one will become very powerful, (8) one will have abundant possessions, and (9) one will be reborn in heaven[F.308.a] and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a bell at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a beautiful body; (2) one’s voice will be melodious; (3) one’s speech will be pleasing; (4) one’s speech will be like the song of the kalaviṅka bird; (5) all will listen to what one says; (6) one will always be happy and filled with delight; (7) one will continuously hear pleasing sounds; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering robes at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a fine complexion; (2) dust won’t stick to one’s body;258 (3) one will be conscientious; (4) one will be a delight to behold; (5) one will always have clothing; (6) one’s garments will remain soft forever and be durable; (7) one will obtain anything that one wants; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering flowers at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will be like a flower in the world;259 (2) one’s power of expression will be purified; (3) the scent produced by one’s body will be sweet smelling; (4) one’s body will become purified; (5) one will go to spread the strength260 to uphold moral discipline in all directions [like a powerful fragrance pervades everywhere]261 and (6) attract all beings;262 (7) one will make a profit in the world;263 (8) one will obtain countless desired qualities; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a flower garland at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One’s physical body will become fragrant like a garland of flowers for the world; (2) one’s body will become purified; (3) one’s scent will always be good; (4) one will be endowed with adornments; (5) the entirety of one’s entourage will be close and (6) in harmony;264 (7) one will be appealing to all men and women; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven[F.308.b] and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.265
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a lamp266 at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will become like a lamp for the world;267 (2) one’s physical eyes will become purified and (3) one will obtain the magical eye;268 (4) one will not be shrouded in the black darkness of ignorance; (5) one will obtain the light of knowledge; (6) one will be able to distinguish between virtuous and nonvirtuous objectives; (7) even when wandering in saṃsāra, one will not be intoxicated by its darkness; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering incense at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will become like a perfume for the world; (2) one’s sense of smell will become acute; (3) the scent of one’s body will become purified and (4) one will remain forever fragrant; (5) one will have a beautiful body; (6) sentient beings will like and flock to one; (7) one will make a profit in the world;269 (8) one will obtain countless desired qualities; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages from offering a drum at a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will have a beautiful body; (2) one will have a pleasing voice; (3) one’s speech will be pleasing; (4) one will be endowed with happiness; (5) one will always be liked; (6) all will listen to one’s words, and (7) eventually one will obtain a renowned voice; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One will gain ten advantages by building a caitya of the Tathāgata. What are the ten? (1) One will be born into a noble family; (2) one’s body and one’s eyes will be beautiful and attractive;270 (3) because one will be a person of influence, one will have a large retinue and its members will be cordial with one another;271 (4) one will have abundant possessions; (5) one will become a unifying presence for all;272 (6) because renown and a good reputation are constantly being generated about oneself,[F.309.a] one will attain great fame everywhere and receive reverence from devas and humans alike; (7) eventually, one will have abundant wealth and (8) become a universal monarch; (9) one will acquire the body of a bodhisattva whose essence is [indestructible] like a diamond;273 and (10) one will quickly attain nirvāṇa.274
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of a seat. What are the ten?275 (1) One will [attain a] high [rank] in the world; (2) one will excel [in the world]; (3) to the multitude of sentient beings, one will become the resounding of joy; (4) one will have abundant possessions; and (5) one will be reborn in heaven and (6) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“Through making the offering of shoes, one gains ten advantages. What are the ten?276 (1) One will not be lacking in vehicles or mounts;277 (2) one will have excellent legs; (3) while on a journey, one will be endowed with strength throughout; (4) one’s body will not be fatigued;278 (5) while on a journey, one will not be wounded by either stone or wood; (6) one will obtain supernatural legs; (7) one will be satisfied with one’s servants;279 and (8) one will be reborn in heaven and (9) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of a bowl. What are the ten? (1) One will possess a bowl;280 (2) one will come to embody good worldly qualities; (3) one will have little thirst, and (4) when one is thirsty, one will be endowed with drink; (5) one’s mind will be supple;281 (6) one will not be reborn as a ghost; (7) one will be ever dear to devas and humans;282 (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of food. What are the ten?283 (1) One’s life will be long; (2) one will possess power; (3) one will possess physical strength; (4) one will possess good memory; (5) one will become eloquent;284 (6) having gathered followers, one will delight them;285 (7) one will make all devas and humans content; (8) one will have abundant possessions; (9) one will be happy; and (10) one will be reborn in heaven and (11) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of shelter.[F.309.b] What are the ten? (1) One will become a vassal king; (2) one will become the ruler of a province;286 (3) one will become a ruler who is unchallenged287 by others; (4) one will become the king of a continent; (5) one will become the king of two continents; (6) one will become the king of three continents; (7) one will become the king of four continents; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages from entering the path of liberation.288 What are the ten?289 (1) One will be free from attachment to children, wives, relatives, and the diversions of the world; (2) one will be free from jealousy; (3) one will be free from grasping at one’s desires; (4) one will not be unhappy dwelling in the forest;290 (5) one will venerate the Three Jewels; (6) one will be free from the state of ignorance; (7) one will be free from the factors that lead one to an unfavorable rebirth destiny; (8) one will strive for virtuous qualities; (9) one will be disengaged among devas and men;291 (10) one will always enter the path of liberation and practice the Dharma like a noble disciple of the Tathāgata; and (11) after being swiftly liberated from suffering, one will attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages through offering drink. What are the ten? (1) One’s sense faculties will be unimpaired; (2) one’s forehead will have the perfect size;292 (3) one’s words will delight all; (4) one’s mind will be supple;293 (5) one will have little thirst, and (6) when one is thirsty, one will be endowed with drink; (7) one will not be reborn as a ghost; (8) one will have abundant possessions; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by making the generous offering of a vehicle.294 What are the ten? (1) One’s legs will be supple; (2) one’s legs will be perfectly shaped; (3) when walking by foot, one’s body will not be hurt; (4) one will be without enemies; (5) one will be endowed with the bases of supernatural powers; (6) one will never lack a vehicle or mount; (7) one will have abundant possessions; (8) one will have happiness; and (9) one will be reborn in heaven and (10) quickly attain nirvāṇa.
“One gains ten advantages by dwelling in seclusion.295 What are the ten? (1) One will have abandoned large crowds; (2) one will enjoy complete solitude; (3) one’s mind will become focused on meditative absorption;[F.310.a] (4) one will engage in few activities;296 (5) one will venerate the Buddha;297 (6) one’s body will be well and at ease; (7) one will not become lost in the intermediate state between death and rebirth; (8) one will understand in detail the meaning of the Dharma, exactly as one has heard it; (9) one will fully attain the four states of imperturbability; and (10) one will fully attain knowledge.
“One gains ten advantages through begging.298 What are the ten? (1) One will become accustomed to walking; (2) one will be far from leading a sedentary life; (3) one will have abandoned pride;299 (4) one will achieve one’s own benefit,300 and (5) one will have established others in merit;301 (6) one will spread the Dharma teachings,302 and (7) thus illuminate those who will be born in the future; (8) one will not transgress the monastic discipline;303 (9) one’s mind will become clear;304 and (10) because one has entered the practice of begging305 with a mind that is completely occupied by virtuous discipline, there will be no darkness in any direction.306
“One gains ten advantages from being self-controlled and confident. What are the ten? (1) with confidence one enters a city; (2) with confidence one emerges from the city; (3) with confidence one enters a family home; (4) with confidence one explains the Dharma in an assembly;307 (5) with confidence one approaches the saṅgha; (6) with confidence one approaches308 one’s preceptor and one’s instructor; (7) one trains oneself in309 the power of loving-kindness; (8) one faultlessly uses one’s robes, alms food, mat, medicine, and other utensils;310 (9) one faultlessly performs one’s daily recitations with a loud voice; and (10) even when one’s time to die has come, one is confident.”
This is what the Bhagavān said. The young brahmin Śuka, son of Taudeya,311 having arisen from his seat and remaining to one side, knelt on his right knee and faced the Bhagavān, with palms together at his chest, paying homage, and prayed: “Bhagavān, I prostrate myself to the three rare and precious ones and take refuge.312 I beg of you—be my virtuous spiritual teacher now and forever!”
Transformation of Karma in one fascicle is completed.
The latter designation—which is also the actual title of some of the texts or recensions belonging to this group of texts, named after one of the protagonists of these sūtras, Śuka (Pāli: Subha), the son of Taudeya—originated with Yamada Ryūjō, who surveyed all the texts belonging to this group in 1935; see Kudo 2004, viii. For a synopsis of all the texts that constitute the Śukasūtra class, see Kudo 2004, Introduction and specifically pp. xx–xxii (Bibliography and Abbreviations); see also Kudo 2008, 366–68.
Tibetan: mdo sde, sa; theg dman gyi mdo mang. For a full list of the text’s location, classification, and context in the different Kangyur editions, see Resources for Kanjur and Tenjur Studies, online database by the Tibetan Manuscripts Project Vienna (TMPV), located at the Department of South Asian, Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, University of Vienna, accessed 2 December, 2017, http://www.rkts.org/cat.php?id=339&typ=1.
See Bruno Galasek-Hul and Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpoche, trans., The Exposition of Karma (Karmavibhaṅga), Toh 338 (84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2023).
Although Transformation of Karma is thematically closely related to the longer (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga, it is quite different in terms of style and lexicon. Since these are two essential criteria for the determination of a text’s school-affiliation, we avoid jumping to conclusions about its potential school-affiliation.
See the chapter concordance in Kudo 2008, 370–72. Mr. Yi Ding, who kindly consulted us on the Chinese translations, suggests that Taishō 80 may be an even closer match than Taishō 81. Another interesting text, extant in Chinese, Tibetan, and Sogdian, the Sutra of the Causes and Effects of Actions (shan wo yin guo jing; Taishō vol. 85, no. 2881), although very different in content, shows some structural resemblance to Transformation of Karma (see MacKenzie 1970). It was, probably like the majority of Buddhist literature in Sogdian, translated from the Chinese.
The Mvy lists Sanskrit vipariṇatam as translation equivalent of Tibetan rnam par ’gyur ba (cf. Sakaki 7315). Cf. also the Sanskrit equivalents for rnam par ’gyur ba provided by Negi, 3047. Negi (3047, II, 6.) cites the title of this work as the only instance of rnam par ’gyur ba to render Sanskrit vibhaṅga. Perhaps the Tibetan title could also be interpreted as meaning “The Dharma Scripture on the Ripening of Karma,” if we interpreted Tibetan rnam par ’gyur ba as non-standard rendering of Sanskrit pariṇāma or pariṇāmana (see BHSD, s.v. pariṇāma and parṇāmana). In Sanskrit, pariṇāma seems to cover two distinct lexical fields: change and transference. The concept of transference of merit (Skt. puṇyapariṇāma) played an important role in the practices of Central Asian lay Buddhists, especially in the context of pilgrimage and pilgrimage sites (among the Uyghurs in particular; see Jens Wilkens, “Buddhismus bei den Türkischen Völkern in Zentralasien,” in Hutter, Manfred, Der Buddhismus II (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2016), 482.
Cf., e.g., the Mvy, s.v. vibhaṅga (Sakaki 1372, 1425). Cf. also the work immediately preceding this one in the Kangyur, the Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338). Sanskrit vibhaṅga is also found rendered as rnam par dbye ba in Tibetan, probably hinting at a confusion or the interchangeable usage of Sanskrit vibhaṅga and Sanskrit/Pāli vibhajana, vibhāga, meaning “division,” “classification,” “distinction,” “distribution,” or “detailing.” Cf. also Edgerton, BHSD, s.v. vibhaṅga. In the old canonical texts of Buddhism in Pāli, the opposite term of vibhaṅga is uddesa: “indication in outline” (CPD, s.v. uddesa 2.). Thus vibhaṅga was understood as detailed explanation of a teaching given in outline, and later may have taken on the sense of commentary and developed into a genre designation.
See Resources for Kanjur and Tenjur Studies: https://www.istb.univie.ac.at, accessed 2 December, 2017. Similarly, the only reference in Negi’s Tibetan-Sanskrit dictionary (Negi, 1259) for Tibetan chos kyi gzhung (Skt. dharmagrantha) is to the title of Toh 339.
The Sanskrit word vibhaṅga can also mean “classification,” etc. Thus, the words chosen by L. Feer (Feer 1883, 252: partage) and Sylvain Lévi (Lévi 1932: classification) in the titles of their translations.
This is an eighteenth-century copy of a manuscript kept in the Shelkar monastery; it is also known as the London Kangyur or British Museum Kangyur after its current location.
See Resources for Kanjur and Tenjur Studies, accessed 4 December, 2017, http://www.rkts.org/cat.php?id=339&typ=1.”
See The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (website), last accessed May 21, 2020, https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=karma). Equally problematic are the definitions of the individual senses themselves, and that the Dictionary entry treats the Buddhist and the Hindu understanding of the term karma indiscriminately.
Cattāri kammāni. Atth’ āvuso kammaṃ kaṇhaṃ kaṇha-vipākaṃ. Atth’ āvuso kammaṃ sukkaṃ sukkavipākaṃ. Atth’ āvuso kammaṃ kaṇha-sukkaṃ kaṇha-sukka-vipākaṃ. Atth’ āvuso kammaṃ akaṇhaṃ asukkaṃ akaṇha-asukka-vipākaṃ, kammakkhayāya saṃvattati (DN III, 230). Trans. by Walshe 1995, 492.
Abhidh-k-bh(P), 234,26–235,3, ad AKK 4.59 c,d: kṛṣṇaśuklādibhedena punaḥ karma caturvidham || 4.59 || asti karma kṛṣṇaṃ kṛṣṇavipākam | asti karma śuklaṃ śuklavipākam | asti karma kṛṣṇaśuklaṃ kṛṣṇaśuklavipākam | asti karmākṛṣṇamaśuklamavipākam | yat tatkarma karmakṣayāya saṃvartata iti |. Trans. by Pruden 1988–91, 635.
See Simon 1970. This version may be identical with the title no. 280: las rnam par ’byed pa chung ngu in the Denkarma (Tib. lhan kar ma) catalog (Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, 154). It is represented by the Tibetan translation H343 in the Lhasa Kangyur (despite the misleading entries in the dkar chag), S287 in the Stok Palace manuscript Kangyur, B346 in the Berlin manuscript Kangyur, and N784 in the Narthang Kangyur’s supplementary (kha skong) volume, as well as by a Dunhuang version (PT944). 84000 hopes to add an English translation to this collection in future.
Kanakura, Yenshô, Munetada Suzuki, and Hakuju Ui. 1934. A Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canons (Bkaḥ-ḥgyur and Bstan-ḥygur) (= Chibetto daizōkyō sōmokuroku). Sendai: Tôhoku Imperial Univ., p. 63, no. 339: que 闕, translator unknown.
For translations and short comments on these terms, see glossary entries: “ignorant of the Dharma,” “ghost,” “monks and nuns.”
See McKeown 2010, 1–96 (for a discussion of yang dag par gshegs pa, see pp. 10, 19, 23, 24, 29).
Mr. Yi Ding states the following in two emails to the translator: “Based on my impression, I don’t think that anyone in Japan has raised the question whether D 339 [the las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba zhes bya ba’i chos kyi gzhung] is a translation from China, which might indicate that there are no obvious giveaways. Also, Ch-1, Ch-2 and Ch-3 are too different from D 339; Ch-4 and Ch-6 were translated into Chinese at a very late stage when there was virtually no known cultural exchange between Tibet and China,” (May 29, 2017), and “[…] among the Chinese translations, Taishō no. 80 is the closest to D 339 but not close enough for a direct relationship. And I totally agree that D 339’s language is pre-reform and very idiosyncratic,” (June 1, 2017). For a complete list of the Chinese translations, see Kudo 2004, Bibliography, p. xx. We are very grateful to Mr. Yi Ding (Stanford University) for providing us with his comments and information about the Chinese translations as well as the Japanese scholarly literature on the group of (Mahā-)Karmavibhaṅga texts, in particular the works written in Japanese by Noriyuki Kudo (see bibliography).
Cf. Apple & Apple 2017, 83: “Cristina Scherrer-Schaub (2002) has proposed that Tibetan translation practices began as early as 763 C.E. with the arrival to Tibet of the Indian scholar Śāntarakṣita.”
See Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, 155. The catalog lists a text with an almost identical title (las kyi rnam par ’gyur ba bstan gyi gzhung) and the same length (270 ślokas and 1 bam po correspond almost exactly to the 23 folios of Toh 339 in the Degé edition.
The reader should keep in mind that these dates should not be accepted without skepticism, for much of the early history of Tibet and the history of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet remains obscure, due to a lack of reliable historical sources. Also, we should not forget that this does not tell us anything about the history of the transmission of the Karmavibhaṅganāmadharmagrantha before its translation into Tibetan, let alone the history and geographical origin of its composition.
Sylvain Lévi mentioned in the introduction to his edition and translation of the MahāKarmavibhaṅga that Feer’s translation contained some “grave errors” (Lévi 1932, 4).
According to D, S ’di skad bdag gis thos pa dus gcig na|. V.l. Y, K, L ’di skad bdag gis thos pa’i dus gcig na|.
Part of ancient Indian etiquette when interacting with prominent and respected religious leaders was to never position oneself directly in front of the person, but to stand or sit slightly to one side. Also, when leaving, one would first circumambulate the teacher clockwise, i.e., with one’s right shoulder toward the teacher, before leaving from the side.
A, D gau ta ma khyod la bdag cung shas shig [C cung shes shig] ’dri na; S, Z go’u ta ma khyod la | bdag cung shas shig ’dri na |. The spelling of the quantifier cung shas here is unusual, and we have not seen it elsewhere so far (usual spelling is cung zad or chung zad). However, all Kangyur editions that we have consulted use this spelling. Moreover, the entire sentence strikes us as rather unusual in this context of a sūtra introduction.
Tibetan kye here probably translates the Middle Indic/Buddhist Sanskrit expression bho (contracted form of the vocative of Sanskrit bhagavant; cf. PED, s.v. bho: “sir, friend, you, my dear [… ].”
Tibetan ngan pa in this context means “ignorant” or being without knowledge or understanding of the Dharma and—more specifically in this context of the teachings on karmic cause and effect and Buddhist ethics—knowing which actions to choose and which to avoid, including respect for and belief in those who possess such knowledge and understanding. L. Feer (1883, 254), in accord with the context, translates this as C’est par les actes qu’on est dans le mal de (l’ignorance). See 1.20 below for the detailed account of this category.
The Tibetan is unclear (D 299.a,6: kye gau ta ma las kyi rnam par smin pa gang gi phyir na sems can sna mang por ’gyur); more literally perhaps “Sir Gautama, [how] do beings become varied due to karmic ripening?” The Tibetan syntax bears some resemblance to a corresponding sentence in the Sanskrit Mh-karmav (Lévi 1932, 29): kasya nu bho gautama karmaṇo vipākenedaṃ satvānāṃ nānātvaṃ prajñāyate (“How, sir Gautama, can one understand the apparent diversity of human beings in terms of (or by way of) karmic results of actions?”), which has guided our translation here.
This translates a unique version of the otherwise familiar stock phrase found at the opening of many sūtras (khyod nyon la dge bar shin tu yid la zung shig). L. Feer translates the Tibetan dge bar (shin tu yid la zung shig) literally as “virtuously” (cf. Feer 1883, 253). However, it is probably just equivalent to the Sanskrit sādhu- or Chinese shan zai 善(哉) here of the commonly found stock phrase. Cf. Mvy. (Sakaki 6315) for the standard rendering of the common Sanskrit version of this phrase: dena hi śṛṇu sādhu ca suṣṭhu ca manasikuru (Tib. de’i phyir legs par rab tu nyon la yid la zungs shig).
Tibetan de’i phyir (Skt. tena hi?), “now then,” which Feer (1883, 253) has translated as “I will speak on this subject” (Je vais parler sur ce sujet).
D tshe rabs kyi las las gyur te; S, L have a sentence terminating particle instead: las gyur to.
The diction of this paragraph is challenging, and our translation is uncertain. Due to the similarity of this passage with another variant of this group of terms in Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338, 1.2) and in order to make the text more intelligible, we tentatively assume that tshe rabs kyi las las gyur te was supposedly intended to render Skt. karmasvaka, sbyin pa’i rnams kyang las Skt. karmadāyāda, skye ba’i rnams kyang las Skt. karmayoni, so sor rgyu ba yang las Skt. karmabandhu, and sems can rnams ni las kyis rnam par bsgyur Skt. karmapratisaraṇa. This rendition here seems to be closer to the parallel version in the Pāli canon (MN III, 203,4–6): Kammassakā, māṇava, sattā kammadāyādā kammayonī kammabandhū kammapaṭisaraṇā. Kammaṃ satte vibhajati yad idaṃ hīnappaṇītatāyāti. Translation Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 2009, 1053, paragraph 4: “Student, beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions; they originate from their actions, are bound to their actions, have their actions as their refuge. It is action that distinguishes beings as inferior and superior.” Cf. the standard renditions in Mvy of these otherwise well-known terms: Tib. las bdag gyir byed pa renders Skt. karmasvakaḥ (Sakaki 2313); las kyi skye gnas pa renders karmayoniḥ (Sakaki 2315); las kyi bgo skal la spyod pa renders karmadāyādaḥ (Sakaki 2314); las brten par bya ba renders karmapratisaraṇam/karmapratiśaraṇam (Sakaki 2316). Feer (1883, 253) translates: “Manava, les êtres provenant des actes de leurs existences (antérieures), le don et tout ce qui s’y rattache étant un acte, la naissance et tout ce qui s’y rattache étant un acte, la cause individuelle de chaque être étant un acte, Manava, les êtres se transforment par l’effet des actes.”
We have retained the agricultural metaphor here. An alternative translation of Tibetan las rnam par smin pa’i ’bras bu may be: “the result of one’s acts” or “karmic punishment and reward” (cf. The Hundred Deeds (Toh 340). A slightly different translation is offered by L. Feer (1883, 253): “It follows that, according to the good, the evil or the in-between (good and bad), the varieties of beings are associated with many different kinds of acts, with many different kinds of sufferings, with many different kinds of views; I will say, for example: the [respective] fruit results from [either] a black act or a white act. Thus, Manava, by the effect of black acts, a being is born (goes) in a bad direction, such as Narakas, Animals, Yaxas (sic), roamers (?), Asuras, etc. Those who have done white acts are reborn among gods or humans.” (Il s’ensuit que, selon le bien, le mal ou l’entre-deux (du bien et du mal), beaucoup d’espéces d’ètres sont liés à beaucoup d’espéces d’actes, à beaucoup d’espéces de douleurs, à beaucoup d’espéces de vues; je veux dire, par exemple: le fruit résultant d’un acte noir et d’un acte blanc. Ainsi, Manava, par l’effet des actes noirs, un être naît (pour aller) dans la mauvaise direction, telle que le Naraka, les animaux, les Yaxas, les rôdeurs, les Asuras, etc. Ceux qui ont fait des actes blancs renaissent parmi les dieux et les hommes.) It is noteworthy that this particular Tibetan translation deviates strongly from parallel passages in related texts in Sanskrit and Pāli, respectively: karma māṇava satvān vibhajati. yad idaṃ hīnotkṛṣṭamadhyamatāyām. tadyathā … . (Mh-karmav paragraph 30); Kammaṃ satte vibhajati yadidaṃ hīnappaṇītatāyāti (MN III, 203). Both of these may be translated as “Living beings are differentiated by their actions, namely, [with regard to their] inferiority or superiority.” (Sanskrit adds “mediocrity.”) The diction in the Shelkar (London) Kangyur (L 353b,2–3) version of the related Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338) is clearer: sems can rnams kyi las sna tshogs dang| nyon mongs pa sna tshogs dang| lta ba sna tshogs dang| spyod pa sna tshogs rig nas| las nag po dang| dkar po rnams kyi ’bras bu rnam par smin pa brjod par bya ste|, “having discerned the manifold actions, defilements, views, and modes of conduct of sentient beings, I will describe the resultant ripening (or the ripening of the result, Skt. phala-vipāka) of black and white acts.”
Tibetan ngan song, Sanskrit apāya, is synonymous with Sanskrit durgati, more commonly translated as the “lower realm(s).”
Tibetan ring du ’khyams pa. Feer (1883, 254) seems to have missed the mark: C’est par les actes qu’on nait parmi les rôdeurs, “It is through acts that one will be born as a prowler” (Germ. Herumtreiber). See the glossary for the term “ghost.”
Here, the asuras, or demigods, are counted among the unfortunate rebirth destinies, or lower realms, which are more commonly known as Tibetan ngan ’gro gsum, the “three lower realms” (hells, animal realms, and ghosts).
This is a free translation of the Tibetan, which reads literally: “through/due to the “ripening” of an action/actions” (las kyi rnam par smin pas), and which we have otherwise translated as “karmic ripening” throughout (See the glossary, s.v. las kyi rnam par smin pa, for a more detailed explanation). We have also abbreviated the Tibetan in our English translation. The sentences after the first one start with las kyis which we interpret to be short for las kyi rnam par smin pas.
Tibetan ma rabs kyi rigs su ’gyur ba. According to Lama Kunga Rinpoche, “In colloquial Tibetan, ma rabs refers to a person who is very vulgar, rude, mostly low-class, and uneducated, with very bad manners; and whose mere presence causes nothing but trouble for everyone around, by being loud and disrespectful.”
We understand “the Dharma” to be implied here, as becomes clear in 1.21. Tibetan shes rab, Sanskrit prajñā, is a notoriously difficult term to translate. Common translations include “wisdom,” “gnosis,” “insight,” “cognition,” “discriminating awareness,” etc. In this particular text, context most often suggests a sense of the word that expresses an analytical quality (or aspect) of one’s mental faculty that is based on prior knowledge or learning of a moral code. Feer (1883, 254) translates Tibetan shes rabs chen po as “extensive knowledge” (une connaissance grande et etendue). See the glossary entry on shes rab for an explanation.
Tibetan gzugs yod pa’i lha is an uncommon term for Sanskrit rūpāvacaradeva (Tib. gzugs yod pa na spyod pa’i lha).
Tibetan las bzhin du mi ’gyur bar skye ba yang yod (possible Skt. astyapi karmamukhā aniyatopapattiḥ). However, later in the text (at 1.7), the Tibetan reads: las kyis bzhin mi ’gyur bar skye ba yang zhe na|. See also 1.35. The karmic category spoken of here is that of Sanskrit (a)niyata, i.e., determined, fixed, definite, or inevitable, which means that the karmic result cannot be altered or averted, i.e., it is certain to be experienced in this life, in a future life or, in the case of the evil actions that bring immediate karmic retribution, immediately after death. Furthermore, its experience corresponds to the moral quality of the action. Cf. Abhidh-k-bh(P), ad AKK IV.54. Tr. by Leo M. Pruden (Pruden 1988–91, 629): “Action accomplished through intense defilement or through intense faith, with regard to the field of qualities, continually, and the murdering of a father and a mother, are determinate.”
Feer (1883, 254) translates: “It is through actions that rebirth occurs without change; it is through actions that rebirth occurs with change.” (XXIII. C’est par les actes que la naissance se produit sans changement; XXIV. C’est par les actes que la naissance se produit avec changement.)
According to D, L, S ma bsams par byas pas; vv.ll. Y, K ma bsams par byas pa ma|; U ma bsams par bya bas. Feer (1883, 254) translates: “When one has carried out actions without thinking about them (or having intended them; Tib. bsams pa), there will nonetheless be rebirth.” (Quand on a fait des actes sans les méditer, la naissance se produit tout de même). However, Tibetan skye bar ’gyur ba here as in the following three categories may be a dittography. The paragraphs corresponding to this category later in the text (cf. 1.38–1.40 below) make no mention of any specific kind of rebirth as the karmic result of (unintended) actions, but rather generally qualify or define actions with regard to the absence or presence of intention.
Tibetan ’dus pa (literally “collect,” “accumulate”; “assemble”) in gang zag las ’di lta bu ’dus pas na has a technical sense when applied to karmically relevant actions (see also BHSD, s.v. upacita and Lévi 1932, 9, 47–48, n. 8). The differentiation between the technical expressions “action that is carried out” (Skt. karma kṛtaṃ) and “action that is accumulated” (Skt. karmopacita) is explained in detail in Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, verse IV,120 (see Abhidh-k-bh at AKK IV,120 Abhidh-k-bh(P) 271,20-272,3 = Pruden 1988–91, 701–702): “Action ‘done’ (Skt. kṛta) is distinguished from ‘accumulated’ (Skt. upacita) action. What are the characteristics and conditions of accumulated action? 120. Action is termed ‘accumulated’ by reason of its intentional character, by its completion, by the absence of regret and opposition, by its accompaniments, and by its retribution.” Although the phrase “to accumulate an action” is not natural English, we have kept this rather clumsy literal translation to indicate the specialized meaning of ’dus pa (Skt. upacita) here and throughout this translation. Sylvain Lévi opted for a more elegant solution in his French translation of the closely related Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338, 1.48) by employing a translation equivalent that expresses the sense of ’dus pa in accordance with Vasubandhu’s definition: “Quel est l’acte qui, étant fait, n’est pas aggravé?” (Lévi 1932, 121).
In light of the explanations of the items listed in the full paragraphs later in the text, we have translated them in a way that tries to bring out the fact that both the former and the latter states (of happiness and unhappiness) are seen as being related by a combination of certain actions.
According to D (phyi nas bde bar) gyur pa’i las; v.l. H (phyi nas bde bar) ’gyur ba’i las. Here, the sentence structure differs from the preceding, parallel sentence, which reads phyi nas mi bde ba’i las. We have attempted to make this difference recognizable in our English translation.
While the sentence structure is generally the same as in the preceding sentences, here the word las (“action”) is missing, so that the subject of the sentence becomes gang zag (“person”). Although it may be the case that las should be supplied in this and the following sentences, we have translated according to the syntax as it is. Feer (1883, 255) translates: “For such an individual the [life]time is exhausted (but) the actions are not.” (Pour tel individu, le temps est épuisé, l’acte ne l’est pas). An individual’s actions not being exhausted means that this person still must experience the karmic consequences in the future.
According to D, L gang zag lus mi bde la sems bde bar ’gyur ba’i las kyang yod|. The editor, in consultation with the translator, settled for this perhaps less accurate but less wordy translation. The Kangyur editions of K, Y, J, N, C read: “well in body as well as in mind.” (Vv.ll. K, Y gang zag lus kyang bde ba sems kyang bde bar ’gyur ba’i las ba yang yod|; J, N, C gang zag lus kyang bde la sems kyang bde bar ’gyur ba’i las kyang [J, C ba yang] yod|; H gang zag lus mi bde la sems kyang mi bde bar ’gyur ba’i las ba’ang yod|).
According to D, S, Z; L reads gang zag lus kyang bde la sems kyang ’gyur ba yang yod| (which could be a scribal omission). K, Y, J, N, C read: “unwell in body as well as in mind.”
According to S, Z gzugs legs pa dang; v.l. D, L gzugs ngan pa [L: ngan ba] dang|. Feer (1883, 255) translates: “The individual who has accumulated such actions and who was born in the region of bad beings(?), will be physically beautiful, agreeable, with a charming complexion, good-looking, with a body that is pleasing to the sight, by virtue of his karma.” (L’individu qui a accumulé tels et tels actes et qui est né sur le terrain des êtres-pervers sera physiquement beau, agréable, d’un teint charmant, de bonne mine, avant un corps agréable á la vue en vertu de son karma).
According to D phyi rol gyi yul sa’i don ngan du ’gyur ba, which agrees with the reading and the content of the corresponding paragraph (see 1.63 below). V.l. S, Z, L phyi rol gyi yul sa’i don du ’gyur ba yang yod do||, “there is (or will be) benefit for the external environment(?),” must be an error. Feer (1883, 255) translates: “Manava, it is like this: through following the path of the ten negative actions, one will arrive at a bad destination, the adverse region[s] [of rebirth?]. (Manava, cela est ainsi: c’est parce qu’on a suivi le chemin des dix actions vicieuses, c’est à cause de cela que l’on arrive au but mauvais de la région adverse).
In classical Tibetan, the verb is generally impersonal, and the expression zhe na is often found in philosophical discourses or in treatises in which a (hypothetical) opponent’s position is presented before being refuted. Thus, common translations are “if someone asks (or says),” or “if it is asked (or said).” We have chosen a translation that is reflective of the sūtra’s narrative frame and its dialogic structure. In the following paragraphs, we have therefore treated Tibetan zhe na simply as signifying a question.
“Factors” is our translation of Tibetan chos (bcus na/ni) in this context (literally: “when (or because) ten factors are present”). D, L chos bcus na; S, Z chos bcus ni (later chos bcus na throughout). Feer (1883, 256) translates Tibetan chos bcus as “ten conditions” (Ici, tu me demandes par l’effet de quel genre d’actes le temps de la vie est court. Je te dirai que dix conditions font que la vie est courte. — Quelles sont ces dix? Si tu les demandes (les voici), “Here, you ask me, through the effect of which kind of act one’s lifespan is short. I will tell you that there are ten conditions that make one’s life short. What are the ten? If you wish to hear them, they are as follows.”) In an earlier draft of this translation, we chose to translate chos with “factors,” which, while not wrong, seemed too vague. Feer’s choice of “conditions,” on the other hand, does not seem to capture the idea that the respective actions enumerated in the text are major factors able to produce a karmic result, and not just conditions that need to be present for a result manifest. Chos in this text appears to be a different way of saying “(karmically relevant) action.”
According to D (de la ji ltar las kyis tshe thung bar ’gyur zhe na| chos bcus na tshe thung bar ’gyur zhe na| bcu gang zhe na|), “if you ask,” (zhe na) is at the end of each subset, thus apparently interpreting the whole to be Śuka’s question. We think, however, that the sentence beginning with chos bcus constitutes the Buddha’s answer to the initial question, and not a new question or part of the first one. This interpretation may be corroborated by the vv.ll. K, Y, N, U, L, S, Z chos bcus na [L | shad after na] [S, Z ni] tshe thung bar ’gyur te [H ste].
According to D gcod pa; L, S, Z bcad pa (perfective of verb gcod, “having taken life; killed; murdered”); v.l. K, Y bcod (seems to be a relatively common variant of gcod).
The Tibetan here uses mi mdza’ ba, which is synonymous with dgra bo “enemy, foe” used in the preceding item.
The Tibetan is not entirely clear, but cf. (Toh 338, 1.8), for a similar content and context, where the meaning of ’thab mo is unmistakably that of battle. A, D read thab mo [C, H, S, Z: ’thab mo] la lta zhing dad pa dang bcu ste|. The preferable reading, however, seems to be that of C, H, S, Z: ’thab mo “quarrel, fight; battle.” Z, moreover, has just ’thab mo la lta zhing dad pa dang|. Feer’s (incorrect) translation (1883, 256) may result from reading thab (mo) without considering the vv.ll.: “Having one’s desires and one’s view focused on the hearth (where the meat is cooking?) …” (porter ses désirs et ses regards sur le foyer (où cuit la viande?) …).
D, S, Z: sems can rnams la skyabs byas. V.l. L, Y, J, K, N, C: sems can rnams skyabs byas (without la).
This translates the obscure Tibetan mya ngan bsring ba rnams (D). See the Glossary of Terms, s.v. “monks and nuns” for a discussion of this term and a possible literal meaning. Vv.ll. L mya ngan sring ba rnams; S, Z mya ngan srid pa rnams.
Tibetan zas mi zhu ba za ba. However, cf. a very similar passage in the Sanskrit text of the Mh-karmav, paragraph 4, (Lévi 1932, 37): “giving [someone] indigestible foods ([…-]pradānaṃ tathāparijīrṇabhojanaṃ).”
Tibetan rim gro byed pa, in contexts like this, can have two main senses: (1) honoring, worshiping (also in form of rites and rituals), reverence; and (2) service, to serve, attend to (or upon), to aid, to see after. We have adopted the latter sense, considering the context of illness. Exact translation into English is complicated by the fact that the Tibetan seems to carry both senses at the same time: tending to or caring for someone with respect or reverence because he or she is in an elevated position, which demands one’s respect and reverence (parents, clerics).
The Tibetan is unclear (zas zhu nas za ba) and could perhaps also be interpreted as “[only] eating food that one has begged for (or received).” But based on a corresponding and very similar passage in the Sanskrit text of the Mh-karmav, paragraph 4 (Lévi 1932, 37), we are somewhat confident that Tibetan zas zhu ba must mean “digestible foods,” and the passage here originally (i.e., in the source text for the Tibetan translation) perhaps meant “providing them with digestible food.” Cf. also the preceding 1.10 above.
Feer (1883, 257) politely rendered Tibetan mi sdug pa into French idiomatically: “a moderately pleasant [i.e., unpleasant] situation” (Comment, diras-tu, arrive-t-on par l’effet des actes à une situation peu agréable.). Lévi (1932, 37, n. 2) has identified the corresponding paragraph of the Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338, 1.15) with relief 21 of the hidden base of the Borobudur (cf. ibid. for references), carrying the inscription “virūpa” (possibly meaning “deformed” or “ugly”). All consulted editions of Transformation of Karma (A, D, L, S, Z) read mi sdug pa. The Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338, F.278.b) reads kha dog mi sdug pa, “complexion, color; appearance” (corresponding to Skt. durvarṇa; Lévi 1932, 37); L mdog mi sdug pa.
According to S, Z khro ba| gnod bcas pa| (two items are needed here in order to parse ten items in this paragraph). D khro ba gnod bcabs pa|; vv.ll. L khro ba gnong (?) (read gnod) bcas pa|. The reading and the interpretation of this passage, however, is not clear. Is D khro ba gnod bcabs pa meant to constitute one term, two terms, or three terms (“anger, harming, disparaging”)? Feer (1883, 257) interpreted this phrase as containing two expressions: “enmity and concealed [bcabs pa, perfective of the Tibetan verb ’chab pa (Skt. mrakṣa, “resentment”)] hostility” (l’animosité; l’hostilité secréte). The related Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338) in its corresponding 1.15 even contains four terms: anger (khro ba), enmity (’khon du ’dzin pa), resentment (’chab pa), and spite (’tshig pa), as does the Mh-karmav (Lévi 1932, 37: krodhaḥ, upanāhaḥ, mrakṣaḥ, pradāśaḥ [read paridāghaḥ?], cf. Kudo 2009, 52; the last term, however, is doubtful, since the following Mh-karmav, paragraph 6, which contains the antipodes of the first three terms mentioned in Mh-karmav, paragraph 5, does not contain the opposite of pradāśaḥ). The Khotanese Karmavibhaṅga (Maggi 1995, 67) gives a curious interpretation of the apparent juxtaposition of terms signifying anger and jealousy or jealous disparagement (Tib. khro ba gnod bcabs pa?): “[The] first act is (if) he should see the advantage of a man being angry and violent, harsh (and such) that envy of the other (man) arises in him because of it.” (Note that the different terms here seem to constitute one “act” and not individual acts as in Transformation of Karma).
The Tibetan is not entirely clear here. D and L (gtum pa pha ma rnams la ngan du smra ba|) do not seem to separate gtum pa from the following act (reviling ones’ parents), while S, Z do (shad | between gtum pa and the following sentence). Alternatively, one could perhaps interpret the passage to mean “being haughty (gtum pa is Old Tibetan for gzu lum(s) che ba), one is not welcoming (Tib. ngan du smra; Skt. durāgata) toward one’s parents, toward monks and nuns.” Parsing the Tibetan in this way, however, would leave one with fewer than ten acts in this category.
According to D, which reads mya ngan bsrings pa in both instances: mya ngan bsrings pa rnams la ngan du smra ba|; L, S, Z mya ngan bsrings [L: srings] pa rnams la ngan du smra ba| mya ngan srid pa’i spyad pa kun la ngan du byed pa|.
D mya ngan bsrings pa’i spyad pa kun la ngan du byed pa|; L, S, Z mya ngan srid pa’i spyad pa kun la ngan du byed pa|. A corresponding passage in the Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338) of the London manuscript Kangyur (mdo sde, ci, 357a,6,7) reads ’phags pa’i yongs su spyad pa ma rung bar byed pa dang|, “destroying the dwelling (or property, shrine) of a noble one.” Our translation follows the parallel passage of the London manuscript which seems clearer. However, the exact meaning of (yongs su?) spyad pa (Skt. paribhoga) here remains ambiguous, and the collocation with the predicate ngan du byed seems to carry moral overtones (Skt. duṣ + √kṛ? Or cf. the Tibetan expression spyod ngan byed, “to misbehave”).
According to the Mvy Tibetan mchod rten should be used to translate both Sanskrit stūpa and caitya (see Sakaki 6999, 7000). The Sanskrit word caitya can refer to a stūpa, but also to a shrine, sacred place or any sacred object. We have therefore rendered mchod rten with the broader term caitya in this translation to retain and express this ambiguity, except where it is clear that specifically a stūpa is referred to.
Feer, in his French translation of Transformation of Karma, uses the Sanskrit reconstruction samyaggata to render Tibetan yang dag par gshegs pa, whereas the standardized rendering of Sanskrit tathāgata is de bzhin gshegs pa (Sakaki 3). Feer (1883, 257, n. 2) comments: “ ‘He who has come, once and for all,’ one of the epithets of the Buddha. I use the Sanskrit word which corresponds to the Tibetan term of our text. It seems to me preferable to a translation that could otherwise only be bizarre.” (“ ‘Celui qui est venu réellement, venu une fois pour toutes,’ une des épithétes du Buddha. J’emploie le mot sanskrit auquel correspond le terme tibétain de notre texte. Il me paraît préférable à une traduction qui ne pourrait être que bizarre.”). However, as far as we know, samyaggata is not usually used as an epithet of the Buddha in Indic Buddhist texts (in the Sanskrit and Pāli texts we have searched, samygaggata is exclusively an adjective). The Sanskrit adjective samyaggata (Pāli sammaggata) generally means “behaving properly,” or “(being) of correct or perfect conduct.” In our interest to preserve the text’s idiosyncratic character, we would have liked to adopt Feer’s very original choice of samyaggata for our translation. However, we chose Tathāgata instead, which is what one would expect in the Sanskrit original.
Feer (1883, 257) translates: “To refuse to keep a caitya of the Samyaggata (i.e., Tathāgata) clean.” (le refus de la propreté au caitya du Samyaggata). In a parallel paragraph to this one, (Toh 338, 1.15) has two different sentences: “soiling stūpas and monasteries and the site of a stūpa,” and “extinguishing offering lamps at stūpas and images.” Literally, Tibetan ’od gcod pa can also mean “eliminate the luster (or brightness).” We have decided to follow the reading of the Karmavibhaṅga (Toh 338, F.278.b: mar me gsad pa).
Any act or deed done with body, speech, or mind. Also translated here as “the potential of their past actions.”
The son of Bimbisāra, ruler of Magadha at the time of the Buddha, who committed patricide, usurped his father’s throne, and conspired with Devadatta to take over the saṅgha. He later repented and became a lay disciple of the Buddha.
One of the three lower realms of existence (Skt. durgati, apāya). Unlike the Western biological classification of life (in which humans belong to the animal kingdom), Buddhism in ancient Asia has developed its own unique taxonomic system that divides all forms of sentient life (plants are mostly excluded from sentient life in the South Asian and Tibetan Buddhist taxonomies) into six (sometimes five) realms or rebirth destinies (Skt. gati): gods (Skt. deva), demigods (Skt. asura), humans (Skt. manuṣya), animals (Skt. tiryak), hell (Skt. naraka), and ghosts (Skt. preta).
There are four kinds of noble persons (Skt. āryapudgala) according to the Śrāvakayāna path, characterized by a gradual abandonment of ten kinds of fetters (Skt. saṃyojana) that bind one to saṃsāra. This is the fourth and final of the four (or eight) stages of the realization of the supermundane path (and fruit), equivalent with awakening or liberation.
A general term applied to spiritual practitioners who live as ascetic mendicants. In Buddhist texts, the term usually refers to Buddhist monastics, but it can also designate a practitioner from other ascetic/monastic spiritual traditions. In this context śramaṇa is often contrasted with the term brāhmaṇa (bram ze), which refers broadly to followers of the Vedic tradition. Any renunciate, not just a Buddhist, could be referred to as a śramaṇa if they were not within the Vedic fold. The epithet Great Śramaṇa is often applied to the Buddha.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
See also “animal.”
Also translated here as “ignorant of the Dharma.”
Four (supernatural) qualities or powers of the mind that help to gain the fruit of the path: aspiration, effort, concentration, and analysis. In contrast to what the name suggests, the actual supernatural powers—like the ability to walk on water, dive into the earth, pass through solid objects, flying, etc.— are usually considered byproducts and even distractions from attaining the fruit of the path: liberation.
A common epithet of the historical Buddha. The Sanskrit word bhaga means, among other factors, good fortune, happiness, prosperity, and excellence. The suffix -vat indicates possession. A common English translation is thus “the Blessed One” or “the Fortunate One.” The three syllables of the Tibetan translation mean that the Buddha has “overcome, conquered” (Tib. bcom), is “endowed with (qualities)” (Tib. ldan), and has “gone beyond (saṃsāra)” (Tib. ’das).
See “young brahmin.”
The Sanskrit word caitya can refer to a stūpa, but also to a shrine (containing an image or a stūpa), a sacred place of worship, or any sacred object.
The literal translation of Tibetan mi ’jigs pa (Skt. vaiśāradya) is “fearlessness.” Usually four kinds of confidence or fearlessness are enumerated when describing a buddha: a fully enlightened buddha is confident of having (1) attained complete, perfect enlightenment regarding all phenomena, (2) eliminated all contaminants, (3) correctly declared all obstacles to enlightenment, and (4) shown the path that actually leads to the liberation from obstacles and suffering. This sūtra, on the other hand, talks about confidence regarding the daily routines of monks and nuns and their deportment. They have confidence in their ability to faultlessly adhere to the monastic discipline in all situations because it provides a sense of protection.
In the most general sense the devas—the term is cognate with the English divine—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.
Term for a deva belonging to the realm of form, which is the second of the three realms of existence according to Buddhist cosmology, rebirth in which is achieved through mastering meditative techniques known as the four dhyānas or meditative absorptions; this realm has seventeen subdivisions. The beings reborn here possess ethereal physical bodies and experience only three senses: sight, hearing, and touch. Attachment to material objects is in general less than in the desire realm (Skt. kāmadhātu).
A deva or god in the formless realm.
Here in Transformation of Karma Tibetan nyon mongs pa is an old Tibetan expression for sdug bsngal ba (see Rnam rgyal tshe ring 2001, s.v. nyon mongs pa) and is used in the senses of to afflict, distress, to cause someone (mental) pain or suffering; distressing; (living in) distress (n.).
The fifth of the ten nonvirtuous actions.
One of the eleven virtuous mental factors (Tib. sems byung dge ba; Skt. kuśalacaitta), a subgroup of the mental states or factors associated with the mind (Skt. caitasika, caitta), according to the Abhidharma. According to Vasubandhu (in his Pañcaskandhaka), khrel (“embarrassment” or “shame”) is different from ngo tsha (“scruples,” “conscience”) in that it is independent from others’ judgment of one’s behavior, and solely internal, in that it contradicts one’s internalized values. See “guilty conscience.”
Sanskrit ānantarya is a short for pañcānantaryāṇi karmāṇi. These are five grave sins which, when committed, lead one to fall immediately, i.e., with no intermediate period, into the Avīci hell after death due to their severity. Usually five are enumerated: killing one’s mother, father, or an arhat; causing dissension in the order of monks (the saṅgha); and deliberately causing a tathāgata’s blood to flow. But the exact number of items varies in different lists from two or three to five (cf. BHSD, s.v. ānantarya).
See “confidence.”
In Buddhist philosophy, the five basic constituents upon which persons are conventionally designated. They are material forms, sensations, perceptions, formations, and consciousness.
Love, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity; also often called the four immeasurables.
This translates Sanskrit ārūpyasamāpatti (“attainment of formless absorptions”) or ārūpyāvacaradhyāna in Transformation of Karma, which in Tibetan is usually translated as gzugs med pa’i snyoms par ’jug pa. The four states of imperturbability are (1) the sphere of infinite space; (2) the sphere of infinite consciousness; (3) the sphere of nothingness (literally, “the sphere in which there is not the slightest bit of anything present”); and (4) the sphere of neither mind nor no-mind. See also “meditative absorption.”
The family name of the historical Buddha Śākyamuni.
Literally “those who have gone to the afterlife.” A synonym or interlinear gloss for preta; ghost in Transformation of Karma. Pretas are a class of sentient beings belonging to the “bad” or “unfortunate rebirth destinies” (Skt. apāya); see “animal.” In the commentary to the Petavatthu (the seventh book of the Khuddakanikāya of the Pāli Canon), the former term is explained as “having gone to the beyond or the afterlife” (Pāli paralokagata), which is effectively the same as Sanskrit preta and Pāli peta; departed, dead. The meaning of durāgata or dūraṃgama (“far-going,” “going here and there”) may refer to the belief that the ghosts of the deceased are able to move freely and quickly through space because they do not have physical bodies, and that the realm of the ghosts does not, in fact, exist in a fixed location but is everywhere. As the stories of the Petavatthu illustrate, the worlds of ghosts and humans often intertwine.
Part of the Tibetan translation of a Skt. stock phrase for the expression of esteem. See “renown,” “good reputation.”
Part of the Tibetan translation of a Skt. stock phrase for the expression of esteem. See glory, renown.
The eighth of the ten nonvirtuous actions.
One of the eleven virtuous mental factors (Tib. sems byung dge ba; Skt. kuśalacaitta), a subgroup of the mental states or factors associated with the mind (Skt. caitasika; caitta), according to the Abhidharma. According to Vasubandhu (in his Pañcaskandhaka), ngo tsha (“scruples,” “conscience”) is different from khrel (“embarrassment” or “shame”) in that it is independent from others’ judgment of one’s behavior, and solely internal, in that it contradicts one’s internalized values and one’s inner moral compass. See “embarrassment.”
The hell realm(s); Transformation of Karma does not differentiate, or at least does not itemize, the different Buddhist hells.
One of the six rebirth states; see “animal”.
Lacking knowledge of or being ignorant [of the Dharma]. J. S. Negi (Negi 935, s.v. ngan pa) cites a few instances where Tibetan ngan pa represents the Sanskrit semantic field “lack of understanding,” e.g., Bodhicaryāvatāra (Tib. ngan pa; Skt. ajñaḥ “not knowing,” “devoid of knowledge,” “stupid,” “foolish,” etc.); Jātakamālā (Tib. ngan pa; Skt. jaḍā matiḥ “dull,” “stupid,” “irrational”); Avadānakalpalatā (Tib. ngan pa; Skt. mūrkhāḥ “stupid, dull-headed; a fool”). Context suggests that this is one sense of ngan pa in Transformation of Karma when it talks about the Dharma and knowledge thereof. Also translated here as “bad deed.”
See also n.43.
In early Buddhism, a teacher who teaches the Dharma and Vinaya to novices and new monks, and who can replace the preceptor (Skt. upādhyāya), if one loses one’s preceptor.
A transitional, discarnate state of a sentient being between death and rebirth, classically said to last up 49 days; its existence was and is not accepted by all Buddhist schools (not, e.g., by the Theravādins).
A bird said to have a song sweeter than any other. Sometimes said to refer to the avadavat, sometimes to the Indian Cuckoo, but used as a simile it is a reference that is partly mythical; the kalaviṅka is said to sing sublimely even before being hatched.
Literally meaning the “fruit” of action(s), karmic result denotes rebirth and karmic punishment and reward as a consequence of, and in accordance with the moral character of, one’s actions.
The complex process of the ripening of karma, i.e., the development of the karmic result (las kyi ’bras bu) of karmically relevant actions committed with body, speech, and mind by virtue of the power of the action as cause and supporting condition.
The first of the ten nonvirtuous actions.
In this text shes rab seems to mean primarily knowledge (defined as insight and understanding one has gained through studying and experience), specifically knowledge of the teachings of the Buddha in general, and of karmic cause and effect in particular (Cf. Edgerton, BHSD, s.v. prajñā: “(Skt., and Pāli paññā), knowledge: three kinds, śrutamayī, cintāmayī, and bhāvanāmayī”, i.e., knowledge consisting in listening to the teachings, reflecting on them, and meditation (cultivating or internalizing the teachings). Also translated here as “knowledge of the Dharma.”
See also n.56.
See entry “knowledge” and also n.56.
Here, the third of the ten nonvirtuous actions.
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DN Carpenter, Joseph Estlin, and T. W. Davids. The Dīgha Nikāya. Vol. III.
DPPN Malalasekera, G. P. Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, 2 vols.
LC Lokesh Chandra. Tibetan-Sanskrit Dictionary.
Mh-karmav Lévi, Sylvain. MahāKarmavibhaṅga and Karmavibhaṅgopadesa, Paris 1932.
Mh-karmav(K) Kudo Noriyuki. Karmavibhaṅga, Tokyo 2004.313
Mvy Sakaki, Ryōzaburō (ed). Mahāvyutpatti.
Negi Negi, J. S. Tibetan-Sanskrit Dictionary.
PED Rhys Davids, T. W., and W. Stede. The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary.
Pañcaskandhaka Xuezhu Li, Ernst Steinkellner, and Tōru Tomabechi. Vasubandhu’s Pañcaskandhaka. Vienna 2008.
cf. compare with.
pw Böhtlingk, Otto. Sanskrit-Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung.
s.v. sub verbo, “under the word”
v.l. varia lectio, “variant reading”
vv.ll. variae lectiones, “variant readings”
w.r. wrong reading
A Kangyur (bka’ ’gyur dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur]
C Choné printed Kangyur
D Degé printed Kangyur
H Lhasa (Zhol) printed Kangyur
J Lithang/ ’jang sa tham / Jiang printed Kangyur
K Peking 1684/1692 (Kangxi) printed Kangyur
L London (Shelkar; shel dkar) manuscript Kangyur, kept at the British Museum
N Narthang printed Kangyur
S Stok Palace manuscript Kangyur
U Urga (khu re) printed Kangyur
Y Yongle 1410 printed Kangyur
Z Shey Palace (shel mkhar) manuscript Kangyur
