Entry into the Gloomy Forest
Toh 314
Degé Kangyur, vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 163.b–169.a
Imprint
Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha
First published 2022
Current version v 1.0.7 (2024)
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Table of Contents
Summary
Entry into the Gloomy Forest tells the story of the eminent brahmin Pradarśa, who is converted to Buddhism upon receiving teachings from the Buddha and goes on to establish a Buddhist community in the Gloomy Forest. The text describes the exceptional circumstances of Pradarśa’s birth, his going forth as a monk, and the miraculous founding of the monastic community in the Gloomy Forest. This is followed by the Buddha’s account of the deeds and aspirations undertaken by Pradarśa in his previous lives that have resulted in the auspicious circumstances of his present life.
Acknowledgements
Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Ryan Conlon prepared the translation and introduction. Andreas Doctor compared the English translation with the original Tibetan and edited the text.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Introduction
Entry into the Gloomy Forest is an account of the extraordinary life of the brahmin Pradarśa, his conversion to Buddhism, and his founding of a monastic community in the Gloomy Forest, a place, located in present-day Punjab, which we can identify as the Tamasāvana Monastery. The text describes the exceptional circumstances surrounding Pradarśa’s birth and going forth as a monk, the miraculous founding of the Gloomy Forest monastic settlement, and the Buddha’s account of Pradarśa’s deeds and prayers in his previous lives that led to his present circumstances. Although the sūtra does not explicitly identify itself as a “past life account” (Skt. avadāna), it shares many of the narrative tropes typical of this genre. Most notably, it illustrates how past existences shape present ones through the power of former deeds and aspirations. At the sūtra’s conclusion, the Buddha teaches that the results of actions are unfailing and that one should therefore strive to exclusively perform deeds that are wholesome. The main objective of the scripture, however, appears to be to provide an account of the founding of a particular Buddhist community. The theme of religious conversion to Buddhism runs through this text, starting with the conversions of Pradarśa and his fellow brahmins and culminating with the conversions of myriad gods and other nonhuman beings.
The origins of this sūtra and its Tibetan translation are rather opaque. The sūtra is not listed, at least in its current form, among the texts of the two imperial inventories of Tibetan translations from the early ninth century, though Butön Rinchen Drup (Tib. bu ston rin chen grub, 1290–1364) includes it in his index of Tibetan translations, which he compiled in the early fourteenth century.1 The Tibetan text’s lack of a translator’s colophon is noted in several later indices, but we have yet to come across any textual hints as to who the translator(s) may have been. As for the sūtra itself, it clearly belongs to the avadāna genre, and there may well be parallel texts somewhere in this vast body of literature (a significant portion of which remains unpublished). Further research may determine such links.
There are notable differences between the sūtra’s colophons in the Stok Palace and Degé Kangyurs, and both furnish some clues about the history of the text. The Stok Palace colophon reads, “I have edited the text as best I can, comparing it with multiple manuscripts. May the Śākya teachings flourish!” This comment suggests that the editor may have refrained from naming a translator because he was basing his finalized version on multiple Tibetan translations (perhaps themselves based on different Indic witnesses) by different translators.
The Degé colophon, by contrast, offers more information about the sūtra’s contents and origin. The colophon can be translated, somewhat tentatively, as follows: “From the ten-thousand-lined Sūtra of the Garland of the Northern Range, this is a description of Mount Uśīra, which is the northern border mountain of the Jālandhara region.”2 We are presently unable to match the larger sūtra referred to here with any surviving text. It seems reasonable, however, to assume that if such a text existed, it may well have been a collection of narrative literature related to Buddhist communities in the northern regions of India. While the sūtra translated here also identifies the Gloomy Forest with Mount Uśīra,3 it is only the colophon that states that the forest is in the region of Jālandhara (modern-day Jalandhar of the Punjab region). The sūtra’s connection with India’s northwest is further solidified by the text’s statement that the monk Pradarśa was born in the country (Skt. janapada) of Trigarta (Tib. ngam grog gsum po), a region well attested throughout Indian Buddhist literature as well as epic, puranic, and even grammatical literature.
Taking the available evidence into account, we can confidently identify the Gloomy Forest as the Tamasāvana.4 The Tamasāvana finds mention in the Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu)5 of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, in which the Buddha, accompanied by Vajrapāṇi, flies through the sky to visit the northwest region. He first arrives at Mount Uśīra, which he predicts will become the Tamasāvana, a great center for the Buddhist Dharma, some one hundred years after his passing into nirvāṇa. The forest is also briefly mentioned in the Aśokāvadāna6 when King Aśoka invites monks from every corner of India to a quinquennial festival (Skt. pañcavārṣika). Furthermore, the forest is likely alluded to in Kṣemendra’s poetic telling of the Gopālāvadāna,7 in which the Buddha visits a forest once inhabited by many buddhas and worthy ones of the past and then bestows his hair and fingernails on a hunter who makes a shrine (Skt. caitya) to house them.
Apart from the sūtra presented here, the most detailed account of the Tamasāvana is found in the travelogues of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (602–64), who describes it as a hill monastery with some three hundred monks located one hundred li8 southeast of Jālandhara. He further identifies it as a seat of the Sarvāstivāda school and the place where Kātyāyanīputra composed an important Abhidharma treatise three hundred years after the Buddha’s nirvāṇa. He adds that the region was also blessed by buddhas and worthy ones of the past and featured many caves.9 Xuanzang’s description is generally consonant with the characteristics of the Tamasāvana found in the present sūtra.
Our translation of the sūtra follows the text as transmitted in the Tibetan Kangyurs since, to the best of our knowledge, no other source for this text is presently available. In producing this English translation, we have based our work on the Degé xylograph while consulting the Comparative Edition (Tib. dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace manuscript for variant renderings in the case of problematic readings.
Text Body
Entry into the Gloomy Forest
The Translation
Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was staying in Śrāvastī, in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park. At that time there was a brahmin named Kambala from a mountain village in the country known as Trigarta. Desiring a son for himself and his kinsmen, Kambala undertook austerities at a place called Brahmin’s Flat Stone. [F.164.a] After praying to one hundred thousand gods for a son, he eventually had a boy whom he called Pradarśa. To his brother was born another boy, who was called Nanda. On the very day Pradarśa was born, five hundred sons were born to five hundred brahmins. As they gradually grew older, Pradarśa and the five hundred other boys trained together in the traditional subjects of learning. Soon Pradarśa and the others attained mastery and dexterity in all fields of learning, and they obtained a hundred thousand exceptional enjoyments due to their perfect accumulations of merit.
At that time, a brahmin youth arrived from the Middle Country and encountered the boys. Welcoming him, the boys struck up a conversation and asked, “So, where have you arrived from?”
“I’m from the Middle Country,” he replied. “There we have six great cities, and in them we have eighteen teachers who are experts in the six correct forms of knowledge and who can lecture without any reticence on the six activities of a brahmin.10 There is also a river there. Additionally, there is someone with a great amount of merit who is virtuous and glorious and who knows everything about the world—he is the blessed Buddha.”
As soon as Pradarśa heard this, his hair bristled and his mind became overjoyed. Thinking that he must go there, he approached his father and announced, “Father, I will go to the Middle Country. I will defeat those with heretical views and debate those regarded as experts.” His father granted him permission.
Pradarśa possessed a majestic presence due to the great merit resulting from generosity, and he was exceedingly generous toward all beings. He was a person protected by the gods. Accordingly, the gods approached him and went ahead to announce, “You must worship the great Pradarśa! It will bring you great results in the form of many benefits!” [F.164.b]
In turn, with gods and humans worshiping him, Pradarśa arrived at Śrāvastī. Having recuperated11 from the fatigue of his journey, he went to where the Blessed One was dwelling and, bowing his head at the feet of the Blessed One, took his place to one side.
The Blessed One then taught the Dharma to Pradarśa and the rest of the assembly. All five hundred members of the assembly12 had their clinging to false views undermined and destroyed, and seeing the truth, they went forth and took up monkhood on the spot. Apart from Ānanda,13 they all vanquished their mental afflictions and became worthy ones. A multitude of other people also came to understand the Dharma.
Because they had been observing the generous14 Pradarśa, the gods and others also arrived in the assembly. Upon their arrival, the Blessed One said to the monks, “Monks, among my monks and the hearers who are monks—however they may be worshiped by gods and humans—the monk Pradarśa is the supreme object of worship by gods and humans!”
Immediately thereupon, Brahmā, the lord of the Sahā world; Śakra, chief of the gods; the Four Guardians of the World; the twenty-eight great yakṣa generals; the king of gandharvas; the general of the kumbhāṇḍas; and others departed from their respective abodes and arrived before the venerable great Pradarśa.
Taking their places to one side, they faced Pradarśa, joined their hands, and said, “Honorable great Pradarśa! There is an abode that was visited and inhabited by previous blessed, perfect buddhas. It was an abode for solitary buddhas, a place for those devoid of desire, and an abode for sages. Ninety-one eons ago, the perfect Buddha Vipaśyin, having ascertained the nature of things, appeared in the world. [F.165.a] At that time, there was a monk named Shining, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans. He also resided in this place. On the northern border of the Middle Country, there was Mount Conch Spire, so called because on it grew grass that resembled the spire of a conch.15 Nearby was the Eni Forest,16 so called because the nāga lady Eni resided therein. In that forest there were caves around which trumpet flower trees grew, and so they were called Pāṭalī Caves. It was there that the blessed, perfect Buddha Vipaśyin arrived and resided along with his retinue of eighty thousand worthy ones. The monk Shining was also there. Then the Blessed One and his retinue gradually passed into nirvāṇa. Once his teaching had disappeared, seventy thousand solitary buddhas who were endowed with the six forms of superknowledge arrived and resided together. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, sixty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit that same place.
“Honorable great Pradarśa, thereafter, sixty-one eons ago, the blessed, perfect Buddha Śikhin appeared in the world. His monk named Luminosity, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had rohita grass growing on it,17 it was called Mount Rohita. The forest was called Unclothed Forest because the nāga lady Unclothed resided there. Because parrot trees grew nearby, the caves were called Parrot Tree Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Śikhin, along with his retinue of seventy thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, sixty thousand solitary buddhas [F.165.b] arrived and resided in that place. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, fifty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit that same place.
“Honorable great Pradarśa, thereafter, thirty-one eons ago, the perfect Buddha Viśvabhū appeared in the world. His monk named Shining Forth Dharma, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had bhasabha18 grass growing on it, it was called Mount Bhasabha. The forest was called Rock Forest because the nāga lady Rock resided there. Because pipal trees grew nearby, the caves were called Pipal Tree Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Viśvabhū, along with his retinue of sixty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, fifty thousand solitary buddhas also arrived and resided there. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, forty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit the place.
“Here, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans was forty thousand years, the perfect Buddha Krakucchanda appeared in the world. His monk named Dharma Endowed, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had kauśika grass growing on it,19 it was called Mount Kauśika. The forest was called Cloud Forest because a nāga lady named Cloud resided there. Because the cluster fig tree grew nearby, the caves were called Cluster Fig Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Krakucchanda, along with his retinue of fifty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and thirty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge [F.166.a] came to inhabit the place.20
“Here, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans was thirty thousand years, the perfect Buddha Kanakamuni appeared in the world. His monk named Uplifted by Dharma, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had green leafy grass growing on it, it was called Mount Leafy Green. The forest was called Drop Forest because the nāga lady named Drop resided there. Because elephant trees grew nearby, the caves were called Elephant Tree Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Kanakamuni, along with his retinue of forty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, thirty thousand solitary buddhas arrived and resided there. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, twenty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit that same place.
“Here, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans was twenty thousand years, the perfect Buddha Kāśyapa appeared in the world. His monk named Śeḍoka, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had a type of grass named moon growing on it, it was called Mount Moon. The forest was called Victorious Forest because the nāga lady Victorious resided there. Because black plum trees grew nearby, the caves were called Black Plum Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Kāśyapa, along with his retinue of twenty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, fifteen thousand solitary buddhas arrived and resided there. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, ten thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge [F.166.b] came to inhabit the place.
“Now, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans is one hundred years, the perfect Buddha Śākyamuni has appeared in the world. You, noble and great Pradarśa, the monk most highly revered by gods and humans, will reside in that very place. Because the bordering mountain has vetiver grass growing on it, it is called Mount Uśīra. The forest is called Gloomy Forest because the nāga lady Gloom resides there. Because mango trees grow nearby, the caves are called Mango Caves. Honorable great Pradarśa, it would be good if you, thinking compassionately, were to reside on that very Mount Uśīra.”
At this point Brahmā, Śakra who is chief of the gods, and the Guardians of the World bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him, “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”21
Then the eight yakṣa generals—namely, Siṅgala, Dharma Protector, Successful, Victorious, Bull Ear, Jewel Ear, Dharma Endowed, and Uplifted by Dharma—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”
Then the eight great yakṣīs—namely, Aśiḍi, Many Sons, Hanging Down, [F.167.a] Fully Hanging, Terrible Lady, Fierce Lady, Small Club Holder, and Sky Dweller—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”
Similarly, the eight great nāgas—namely, Tawny, Scent, Watery, Wrathful, Staircase to Heaven, Staircase to a Vase, Nearby Nāga, and Oḍasuta—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”
Similarly, the eight nāga ladies—namely, Darkness, Eager to Leave, Seer, Cool, Load Carrying, Speech Strewing, Universal Army, and Gandharva Lady—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”
The venerable great Pradarśa, by remaining quiet, consented to this request. [F.167.b] And those gods, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, gandharvas, mahoragas, and so on happily rejoiced, as they knew that the venerable great Pradarśa had consented to the request by remaining quiet. The venerable great Pradarśa then gazed intently at the Teacher’s face and left for the Gloomy Forest. Arriving there, he stood in the open air and struck the gaṇḍī, the sound of which was heard by the monks as it covered the whole of Jambudvīpa. They began to think, “This sound has come from the Gloomy Forest.” This being an abode that was also inhabited by the previous perfect buddhas, by the solitary buddhas, by those without desire, and by the sages, the monks knew, understood, and saw that now the sound could only be from the honorable great Pradarśa. Eighteen thousand worthy ones then traveled to the Gloomy Forest to undertake the summer rains retreat.
Brahmā, the chief of the gods, and the Guardians of the World brought the hair and nails of the Thus-Gone One. Having arrived, they erected a reliquary containing the hair and nails. They also constructed a monastery, which was given the name Vajra Monastery. Brahmā, the lord of the Sahā world, and the Four Guardians of the World also built their own individual monasteries, and the gods resided in them for the first year. For a full year, Śakra, chief of the gods, personally offered essential supplies such as monks’ robes. Apsarases such as Blissful also offered each monk cotton cloth for their monks’ robes.
Then the venerable great Pradarśa, situated in the large assembly hall and surrounded by a retinue of gods, said, “So that this place may be habitable for a long time to come and contain cities for gods and humans, I have taught the Dharma to people such as the kṣatriya known as Tough Man, [F.168.a] and they have become pleased and devoted. The great king Tough Man has gone for refuge to the Three Jewels, and others have also become devotees. Work has been done on five hundred caves. Five hundred sages endowed with the five forms of superknowledge have also gone forth and achieved the realization of a worthy one. In this area, there is also a person who is an expert in the religion of the brahmins. I defeated him in debate, and he has gone forth. He too has achieved the realization of a worthy one.”22
Thus, it became well known in the palaces of kings and in the cities and towns that the venerable great Pradarśa, along with eighty thousand worthy ones, resided in the Gloomy Forest. Every day, people such as King Tough Man offered buttermilk to the noble saṅgha. The nonhumans offered ghee, and others, being happy and inspired, were pleased and rejoiced and offered their service. Similarly, the nāgas, being happy and pleased, offered meals of eighteen different varieties.
Other beings also developed a similar intention. For example, the kṣatriyas and ministers cooperated to establish a park that contained many beautiful flowering and fruit-bearing trees, such as the mango tree, the trumpet flower tree, the cutch, the Indian banyan, the pipal tree, the three myrobalans, the campaka tree, the uduka tree,23 the licorice tree, the bel fruit tree, the braho tree,24 the black plum tree, the duna tree,25 and the banana plant. There were also flowers such as arabian jasmine, downy jasmine, and common jasmine. The rulers and ministers then offered this park to the saṅgha so that the monks would be able to live comfortably and have an abode conducive to wholesome pursuits.
Later, however, the monks came to have doubts, and so they asked the blessed Buddha, who quells all doubts, [F.168.b] “What action did the honorable and venerable Pradarśa previously perform so that now, as this action ripens, he is rich, wealthy, and born in a prosperous lineage, so that he is handsome and the one most highly revered by gods and humans, and so that he is endowed with a great amount of merit? Please make this known to us!”
The Blessed One responded, “O monks, ninety-one eons ago, the perfect Buddha Vipaśyin appeared in the world. He was perfect in terms of wisdom and conduct, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, a charioteer for beings, an unsurpassed being, a teacher of gods and humans, and a blessed buddha. He resided in King Bandhumat’s palace. At that time, a certain rich man from the caste of plasterers built a monastery for Vipaśyin. Landscaping it beautifully with flowers and fruit-bearing trees, the man offered the monastery, which was enveloped by pleasing scents, to Vipaśyin. He also went forth under the teaching of that very Teacher. After the perfect Buddha Vipaśyin had passed into nirvāṇa, this monk erected a precious pillar at the foundation of the reliquary that held the Buddha’s relics. The people in the retinue of this monk, who had gone forth from the caste of plasterers, rejoiced and felt admiration. Then they made the following aspiration: ‘Just as you admire the Teacher, may we too have faith and admiration. May we act according to the words of the Teacher and please him. May we not displease him.’
“O monks, what do you think? At that time, on that occasion, the person who was the plasterer is none other than the venerable great Pradarśa. Similarly, those other beings are these gods and humans present here, and now too he is guiding them.
“Moreover, he went forth under the teaching of the Blessed Kāśyapa, and his preceptor was the one who was the one most highly revered by gods and humans. He made the following aspiration: ‘Just as my preceptor is the one most highly revered by gods and humans, may I too, under the teaching of the perfect Buddha Śākyamuni, [F.169.a] become the one most highly revered by gods and humans.’ For that reason, he has now become the one most highly revered by gods and humans.
“Therefore, O monks, the ripening of thoroughly black deeds is thoroughly black. The ripening of truly white deeds is white. The ripening of mixed deeds is mixed. For that reason, O monks, abandon truly black deeds and mixed deeds. You must carry out those deeds that are truly white. Monks, you should train in this way!”
When the Blessed One had said this, the monks contemplated the Blessed One’s speech and were pleased.
This completes the sūtra “Entry into the Gloomy Forest.”
Colophon
From the ten-thousand-lined Sūtra of the Garland of the Northern Range, this is a description of Mount Uśīra, which is the northern border mountain of the Jālandhara region.
Notes
Bibliography
Tibetan Texts:
mun gyi nags tshal gyi sgo (*Tamovanamukha). Toh 314, Degé Kangyur vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 163.b–169.a.
mun gyi nags tshal gyi sgo. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 72, pp. 491–506.
mun gyi nags tshal gyi sgo (*Dandavanamukha). Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 67 (mdo sde, ma), folios 404.b–413.a.
kye’i rdo rje’i rgyud (Hevajratantra). Toh 417, Degé Kangyur vol. 80 (rgyud, nga), folios 1.a–13.b.
rgyud gyi rgyal po chen po dpal rdo rje mkha’ ’gro (Vajraḍākatantra), Toh 370, Degé Kangyur vol. 78 (rgyud, kha): 1.b–125.a.
mdo chen po kun tu rgyu ba dang / kun tu rgyu ba ma yin pa dang mthun pa’i mdo (Āṭānāṭīyamahāsūtra). Toh 656, Degé Kangyur vol. 91 (rgyud, ba), folios 149.b–162.b.
’dul ba gzhi (Vinayavastu), Toh 1, Degé Kangyur vols. 1–4 (’dul ba, ka–nga).
sman gyi gzhi (Bhaiṣajyavastu). Toh 1-6, Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folio 277.b–vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folio 50.a. English translation in Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team, trans. 2021.
Kṣemendra. byang chub sems dpa’i rtogs pa brjod pa dpag bsam gyi ’khri shing (Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā). Toh 4155, Degé Tengyur vol. 170–71 (skyes rabs, ke–khe), folios 1.b (ke)–329.a (khe). See Das and Vidyābhūṣaṇa 1888–1918.
Butön Rinchen Drup (bu ston rin chen grub). bde bar gshegs pa’i bstan pa’i gsal byed chos kyi ’byung gnas gsung rab rin po che’i mdzod. In The Collected Works of Bu-ston, edited by Lokesh Chandra, 633–1056. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–71.
Secondary Sources
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Das, C. S., Hari Mohan Vidyābhūṣaṇa, and Satis Chandra Vidyābhūṣaṇa. Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā. Bibliotheca Indica 124. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1888–1918.
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Demiéville, Paul. “Les Versions Chinoises du Milindapañha.” Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient 24 (1924): 1–258.
Dutt, Nalinaksha. Gilgit Manuscripts, Vol. 3, Part 1. Srinagar: Research Department, 1947.
Meulenbeld, G. J. The Mādhavanidāna and Its Chief Commentary: Chapters 1–10. Leiden: Brill, 1974.
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Glossary
Types of attestation for names and terms of the corresponding source language
Attested in source text
This term is attested in a manuscript used as a source for this translation.
Attested in other text
This term is attested in other manuscripts with a parallel or similar context.
Attested in dictionary
This term is attested in dictionaries matching Tibetan to the corresponding language.
Approximate attestation
The attestation of this name is approximate. It is based on other names where the relationship between the Tibetan and source language is attested in dictionaries or other manuscripts.
Reconstruction from Tibetan phonetic rendering
This term is a reconstruction based on the Tibetan phonetic rendering of the term.
Reconstruction from Tibetan semantic rendering
This term is a reconstruction based on the semantics of the Tibetan translation.
Source unspecified
This term has been supplied from an unspecified source, which most often is a widely trusted dictionary.
Apsarases
- lha’i bu mo
- ལྷའི་བུ་མོ།
- apsaras
arabian jasmine
- me tog ma li ka
- མེ་ཏོག་མ་ལི་ཀ
- mallikā
Aśiḍi
- a shi Di
- ཨ་ཤི་ཌི།
- aśiḍi
asura
- lha ma yin
- ལྷ་མ་ཡིན།
- asura
banana plant
- chu shing
- ཆུ་ཤིང་།
- kadalī
bel fruit
- bil ba
- བིལ་བ།
- bilva
black plum
- 'dzam bu
- འཛམ་བུ།
- jambū
Black Plum Caves
- ’dzam bu’i phug
- འཛམ་བུའི་ཕུག
- —
Blissful
- bde
- བདེ།
- —
Brahmā
- tshangs pa
- ཚངས་པ།
- brahmā
brahmin
- bram ze
- བྲམ་ཟེ།
- brāhmaṇa
Brahmin’s Flat Stone
- bram ze’i rdo leb
- བྲམ་ཟེའི་རྡོ་ལེབ།
- —
Bull Ear
- glang rna
- གླང་རྣ།
- —
campaka tree
- me tog tsam pa ka’i shing
- མེ་ཏོག་ཙམ་པ་ཀའི་ཤིང་།
- campaka
Cloud
- sprin
- སྤྲིན།
- —
Cloud Forest
- sprin gyi nags
- སྤྲིན་གྱི་ནགས།
- —
Cluster Fig Caves
- u dum pA ra’i phug
- ཨུ་དུམ་པཱ་རའི་ཕུག
- —
cluster fig tree
- shing u dum ba ra
- ཤིང་ཨུ་དུམ་བ་ར།
- udumbara
common jasmine
- dza hi ka
- ཛ་ཧི་ཀ
- jātī
Cool
- grang mo
- གྲང་མོ།
- —
country
- ljongs kyi skye bo
- ལྗོངས་ཀྱི་སྐྱེ་བོ།
- janapada
cutch
- seng ldeng gi shing
- སེང་ལྡེང་གི་ཤིང་།
- khadira
Darkness
- mun
- མུན།
- —
Dharma Endowed
- chos ldan
- ཆོས་ལྡན།
- —
Dharma Endowed
- chos ldan
- ཆོས་ལྡན།
- —
Dharma Protector
- chos skyong
- ཆོས་སྐྱོང་།
- —
downy jasmine
- kun da
- ཀུན་ད།
- kunda
Drop
- thig le
- ཐིག་ལེ།
- —
Drop Forest
- thig le’i nags
- ཐིག་ལེའི་ནགས།
- —
Eager to Leave
- ’gro ’dod
- འགྲོ་འདོད།
- —
eight great nāgas
- klu chen po brgyad po
- ཀླུ་ཆེན་པོ་བརྒྱད་པོ།
- aṣṭamahānāga RS
eight great yakṣīs
- gnod sbyin ma chen mo brgyad
- གནོད་སྦྱིན་མ་ཆེན་མོ་བརྒྱད།
- aṣṭamahāyakṣī RS
eight yakṣa generals
- gnod sbyin gyi sde dpon brgyad po
- གནོད་སྦྱིན་གྱི་སྡེ་དཔོན་བརྒྱད་པོ།
- aṣṭayakṣasenāpati RS
elephant tree
- ka pi ta
- ཀ་པི་ཏ།
- kapittha
Elephant Tree Caves
- ka pi ta’i phug
- ཀ་པི་ཏའི་ཕུག
- —
Eni
- ai ni
- e ni
- ཨཻ་ནི།
- ཨེ་ནི།
- —
Eni Forest
- ai ni’i nags
- ཨཻ་ནིའི་ནགས།
- —
Excellent Eon
- bskal pa bzang po
- བསྐལ་པ་བཟང་པོ།
- bhadrakalpa
Fierce Lady
- gtum mo
- གཏུམ་མོ།
- —
five forms of superknowledge
- mngon par shes pa lnga
- མངོན་པར་ཤེས་པ་ལྔ།
- pañcābhijñā
Four Guardians of the World
- ’jig rten skyong ba bzhi
- འཇིག་རྟེན་སྐྱོང་བ་བཞི།
- caturlokapāla
Fully Hanging
- rab tu ’phyang ma
- རབ་ཏུ་འཕྱང་མ།
- —
gandharva
- dri za
- དྲི་ཟ།
- gandharva
Gandharva Lady
- dri za mo
- དྲི་ཟ་མོ།
- —
gaṇḍī
- gaN DI
- གཎ་ཌཱི།
- gaṇḍī
garuḍa
- nam mkha’ lding
- ནམ་མཁའ་ལྡིང་།
- garuḍa
Gloom
- mun pa
- མུན་པ།
- —
Gloomy Forest
- mun gyi nags tshal
- ta ma sa'i nags
- mun gyi nags
- མུན་གྱི་ནགས་ཚལ།
- ཏ་མ་སའི་ནགས།
- མུན་གྱི་ནགས།
- tamasāvana
Hanging Down
- ’phyang ma
- འཕྱང་མ།
- —
hearer
- nyan thos
- ཉན་ཐོས།
- śrāvaka
Indian banyan
- n+ya gro d+ha
- ནྱ་གྲོ་དྷ།
- nyagrodha
Jālandhara
- za len dra
- dzA lan dha ra
- ཟ་ལེན་དྲ།
- ཛཱ་ལན་དྷ་ར།
- jālandhara
Jambudvīpa
- ’dzam bu’i gling
- འཛམ་བུའི་གླིང་།
- jambudvīpa
Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park
- rgyal bu rgyal byed kyi tshal mgon med zas sbyin gyi kun dga’ ra ba
- རྒྱལ་བུ་རྒྱལ་བྱེད་ཀྱི་ཚལ་མགོན་མེད་ཟས་སྦྱིན་གྱི་ཀུན་དགའ་ར་བ།
- jetavanam anāthapiṇḍadasyārāmaḥ AO
Jewel Ear
- dbyig rna
- དབྱིག་རྣ།
- —
Kanakamuni
- ser thub
- སེར་ཐུབ།
- kanakamuni
Kāśyapa
- ’od srung
- འོད་སྲུང་།
- kāśyapa
King Bandhumat
- rgyal po gnyen ldan
- རྒྱལ་པོ་གཉེན་ལྡན།
- bandhumat
king of gandharvas
- dri za’i rgyal po
- དྲི་ཟའི་རྒྱལ་པོ།
- gandharvarāja
kinnara
- mi’am ci
- མིའམ་ཅི།
- kinnara
Krakucchanda
- log par dad sel
- ལོག་པར་དད་སེལ།
- krakucchanda
kṣatriya
- rgyal rigs
- རྒྱལ་རིགས།
- kṣatriya
kumbhāṇḍa
- grul bum
- གྲུལ་བུམ།
- kumbhāṇḍa
licorice tree
- ma du ka
- མ་དུ་ཀ
- madhuka
Load Carrying
- khur drang mo
- ཁུར་དྲང་མོ།
- —
Luminosity
- rab gsal
- རབ་གསལ།
- —
mahoraga
- lto ’phye chen po
- ལྟོ་འཕྱེ་ཆེན་པོ།
- mahoraga
Mango Caves
- a mra’i phug
- ཨ་མྲའི་ཕུག
- —
mango tree
- shing a mra
- ཤིང་ཨ་མྲ།
- āmra
Many Sons
- bu mangs
- བུ་མངས།
- —
Middle Country
- yul dbus
- ཡུལ་དབུས།
- madhyadeśa
monastery
- gtsug lag khang
- གཙུག་ལག་ཁང་།
- vihāra
Mount Bhasabha
- bha sa bha sa’i ri
- བྷ་ས་བྷ་སའི་རི།
- —
Mount Conch Spire
- ri dung gi lte ba
- རི་དུང་གི་ལྟེ་བ།
- —
Mount Kauśika
- kau shi ka’i ri
- ཀཽ་ཤི་ཀའི་རི།
- —
Mount Leafy Green
- kha dog ljang lo ri
- ཁ་དོག་ལྗང་ལོ་རི།
- —
Mount Moon
- zla ba’i ri
- ཟླ་བའི་རི།
- —
Mount Rohita
- ro hi tI’i ri
- རོ་ཧི་ཏཱིའི་རི།
- —
Mount Uśīra
- u shi’i ri
- ཨུ་ཤིའི་རི།
- uśīragiri
Nanda
- dga’ bo
- དགའ་བོ།
- nanda
Nearby Nāga
- nye ba’i klu
- ཉེ་བའི་ཀླུ།
- —
Oḍasuta
- o Da su ta
- ཨོ་ཌ་སུ་ཏ།
- oḍasuta
parrot tree
- shing shir sha
- ཤིང་ཤིར་ཤ།
- śirīṣa
Parrot Tree Caves
- shing shir sha’i phug
- ཤིང་ཤིར་ཤའི་ཕུག
- —
Pāṭalī Caves
- pa ti li’i phug
- པ་ཏི་ལིའི་ཕུག
- —
pipal tree
- shing a shwad tha
- a shwad tha
- ཤིང་ཨ་ཤྭད་ཐ།
- ཨ་ཤྭད་ཐ།
- aśvattha
Pipal Tree Caves
- a shwad tha’i phug
- ཨ་ཤྭད་ཐའི་ཕུག
- —
reliquary
- mchod rten
- མཆོད་རྟེན།
- stūpa
- caitya
Rock
- brag
- བྲག
- —
Rock Forest
- brag gi nags
- བྲག་གི་ནགས།
- —
Sahā world
- mi mjed
- མི་མཇེད།
- sahā
Śakra
- brgya byin
- བརྒྱ་བྱིན།
- śakra
Scent
- dri ma
- དྲི་མ།
- —
Seer
- mthong mo
- མཐོང་མོ།
- —
Shining
- gsal ba
- གསལ་བ།
- —
Shining Forth Dharma
- chos gsal
- ཆོས་གསལ།
- —
Śikhin
- gtsug tor can
- གཙུག་ཏོར་ཅན།
- śikhin
Siṅgala
- sing ga la
- སིང་ག་ལ།
- siṅgala
six forms of superknowledge
- mngon par shes pa drug
- མངོན་པར་ཤེས་པ་དྲུག
- ṣaḍabhijñā
six great cities
- grong khyer chen po drug
- གྲོང་ཁྱེར་ཆེན་པོ་དྲུག
- ṣaṇmahānagara
six sources of knowledge
- tshad ma drug
- ཚད་མ་དྲུག
- ṣaṭpramāṇa
Sky Dweller
- bar snang ma
- བར་སྣང་མ།
- —
Small Club Holder
- mdung thung ’dzin
- མདུང་ཐུང་འཛིན།
- —
solitary buddha
- rang sangs rgyas
- རང་སངས་རྒྱས།
- pratyekabuddha
Speech Strewing
- lab ’thor ma
- ལབ་འཐོར་མ།
- —
Śrāvastī
- mnyan du yod pa
- mnyan yod
- མཉན་དུ་ཡོད་པ།
- མཉན་ཡོད།
- śrāvastī
Staircase to a Vase
- bum pa’i bang rim
- བུམ་པའི་བང་རིམ།
- —
Staircase to Heaven
- lha’i bang rim
- ལྷའི་བང་རིམ།
- —
Successful
- don grub
- དོན་གྲུབ།
- —
summer rains retreat
- dbyar gyi gnas pa
- དབྱར་གྱི་གནས་པ།
- varśā
Tawny
- ser skya
- སེར་སྐྱ།
- —
Terrible
- drag mo
- དྲག་མོ།
- —
three myrobalans
- ’bras bu gsum gyi shing
- འབྲས་བུ་གསུམ་གྱི་ཤིང་།
- triphalaka
Tough Man
- rtsub po
- རྩུབ་པོ།
- —
Trigarta
- ngam grog gsum po
- ངམ་གྲོག་གསུམ་པོ།
- trigarta
trumpet flower tree
- pa ti li
- pa ti’i shing
- པ་ཏི་ལི།
- པ་ཏིའི་ཤིང་།
- pāṭala
Unclothed
- gos med
- གོས་མེད།
- —
Unclothed Forest
- gos med kyi nags
- གོས་མེད་ཀྱི་ནགས།
- —
Universal Army
- sna tshogs sde
- སྣ་ཚོགས་སྡེ།
- —
Uplifted by Dharma
- chos ’phags
- ཆོས་འཕགས།
- —
Vajra Monastery
- rdo rje’i gtsug lag khang
- རྡོ་རྗེའི་གཙུག་ལག་ཁང་།
- —
vetiver grass
- u shi sha
- ཨུ་ཤི་ཤ།
- uśīra
Victorious
- rgyal ba
- རྒྱལ་བ།
- —
Victorious
- gzhan las rgyal
- གཞན་ལས་རྒྱལ།
- —
Victorious Forest
- rgyal ba’i nags
- རྒྱལ་བའི་ནགས།
- —
Vipaśyin
- rnam par gzigs
- རྣམ་པར་གཟིགས།
- vipaśyin
Viśvabhū
- thams cad skyob
- ཐམས་ཅད་སྐྱོབ།
- viśvabhū
Watery
- chu ldan
- ཆུ་ལྡན།
- —
worthy one
- dgra bcom pa
- དགྲ་བཅོམ་པ།
- arhat
Wrathful
- drag shul
- དྲག་ཤུལ།
- —
yakṣa general
- gnod sbyin gyi sde dpon chen po
- གནོད་སྦྱིན་གྱི་སྡེ་དཔོན་ཆེན་པོ།
- yakṣasenāpati