The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma, initiated by the questions of the bodhisattva Divyamauli, consists of a series of teachings by the kinnara king Druma, given within a rich narrative framework in which music plays a central role in teaching the Dharma. This sūtra presents a variety of well-known Great Vehicle Buddhist themes, but special attention is given to the six bodhisattva perfections and the perfection of skillful means, as well as to the doctrine of emptiness that is discussed throughout the text.
This text was translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Benjamin Collet-Cassart translated the text from Tibetan into English and wrote the introduction. Andreas Doctor compared the draft translation with the original Tibetan and edited the text. The translators would like to thank Paul Harrison for reading the translation and offering many helpful suggestions.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The generous sponsorship of Sharon Xu and Michael Pan, which helped make the work on this translation possible, is most gratefully acknowledged.
The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma1 is a scripture that belongs to the general sūtra section of the Tibetan Kangyur. The sūtra presents a series of teachings focusing on the doctrine of emptiness and the bodhisattvas’ perfections, presented in a rich narrative framework in which Druma, the king of the kinnaras, is the protagonist. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Hindu literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal (usually half bird). They are also usually depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians. King Druma is himself a well-known figure in canonical Sanskrit sources, where he frequently appears, albeit mostly in minor roles, offering musical worship to the Buddha. For example, King Druma appears in such a role in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra (Toh 113)2 where he is one of four kinnara kings (the other three are Mahādharma, Sudharma, and Dharmadhara) attending the Buddha’s teaching. He is also included in the Samādhirājasūtra (Toh 127)3 where he arrives with his queens to make an offering of his music to the Buddha.
The title of this text is actually somewhat misleading since the questions that bring forth the sūtra’s doctrinal content are not in fact posed by Druma, but instead by the bodhisattva Divyamauli, who is the primary interlocutor throughout this sūtra. As such Druma assumes the role of the teacher who over the course of the text displays a profound understanding of the doctrine of emptiness. The Buddha accordingly commends him for his grasp of the truth and extols Druma as a great bodhisattva whose level of realization far surpasses that of any hearer or solitary buddha. Toward the end of the teaching, the Buddha also prophesies Druma’s future awakening in great detail.
Music plays a central role throughout this sūtra. As Paul Harrison has noted, music is presented in several episodes as a metaphor for the ungraspable nature of reality—emptiness—as it serves as the basis for Druma’s teachings to Divyamauli and the rest of the assembly.4 In one remarkable episode, the power of Druma’s music is such that even the accomplished elders among the monks lose control of their bodies and start to dance helplessly to the tune of Druma’s lute, while only those who have reached the bodhisattva levels are able to remain seated.
The sūtra elaborates on a variety of general themes associated with the Great Vehicle. As well as the doctrine of emptiness, discussed at various points in the text, it gives special attention to the six perfections and in particular to the mastery of skillful means. It also contains a lengthy teaching on the ways in which women can be reborn with a male body—something that, according to several Great Vehicle sūtras, is a prerequisite for attaining awakening as a buddha.5
In terms of traditional scholarship, several citations from this sūtra appear in the Caryāmelāpakapradīpa, an influential work attributed to the “tantric” Āryadeva.6 The sūtra is also briefly cited in the Subhāṣitasaṃgraha, an anonymous anthology of tantric works.7 While no Sanskrit manuscript of The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma appears to be extant, we do have translations of this sūtra in both Chinese and Tibetan. Two Chinese translations are available: one produced by Lokakṣema (T.624) and the other by Kumārajīva (T.625). Lokakṣema was born around 147
The Tibetan translation was completed in the early translation period and is listed in the early ninth-century Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) catalogue. According to the colophon to the Tibetan translation, the sūtra was translated into Tibetan by the prolific translators Kawa Paltsek (ska ba dpal brtsegs) and Palkyi Lhünpo (dpal gyi lhun po),10 both of whom participated in numerous translation projects in Tibet during the early translation period when the majority of Indian sūtras were translated into Tibetan (late eighth to early ninth century). Kawa Paltsek was also one of the initial seven Tibetans to be ordained during the founding of the first Tibetan monastery of Samyé (bsam yas). He translated numerous canonical texts, both sūtra and tantra, and became one of the most active translators of his time. Some Tibetan translators, including Palkyi Lhünpo, are known to have translated certain Indian texts without the help of Indian teachers,11 and this may well have been the case with The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma, as no Indian scholars are mentioned in the colophon.
Our translation work benefited greatly from the work of Paul Harrison (1992), who published a full critical edition of the Tibetan text based on nine available witnesses—Stok Palace MS, London, Tokyo MS, Degé, Lithang, Peking, and Narthang, as well as the Phukdrak MS independent Kangyur and extant portions of a Dunhuang manuscript.12 In his work, the different versions of the text are grouped under two recensions, representing the Thempangma (them spangs ma) and Tshalpa (tshal pa) lines and respectively referred to as “Recension A” and “Recension B.” Stok Palace MS, London, and Tokyo MS are grouped under Recension A and Degé, Lithang, Peking, and Narthang13 under Recension B. According to Harrison’s findings, the Phukdrak MS version of the text mostly agrees with the texts of the Thempangma line while the Dunhuang manuscript mostly corresponds with those of the Tshalpa line. He observes that these groups of versions belong to distinct “recensions” in that they reflect major “recensional variation”—significant editorial changes such as extensive alterations to the wording of the text and systematic substitution of different terminology—and not just “transmissional variation.” Those groups of texts are indeed quite different in ways that cannot be accounted for by scribal error or casual emendation.14 Harrison subsequently discovered while sifting through the damaged and disheveled Tabo Kangyur that about 13% of this text is preserved there too. Upon collating this with his existing edition, he observed that it is not a Thempangma copy, “but bears a version derived independently from the revision process which produced Recension A of the text, which on the whole it reproduces with remarkable fidelity.”15
Harrison’s critical edition is a reconstruction of Recension A, which he takes to be “a fair but possibly later reflection of the fully revised translation produced at the beginning of the ninth century.”16 He argues that the texts included in Recension A seem closer to standard revised translations than the texts included in Recension B, since they accord more with the Mahāvyutpatti.17 Yet his conclusion, in the light of his analysis of the available witnesses of the text, is that “no representative…, no matter how venerable, may be given priority or regarded as invariably the ‘best text.’ This means that variants between genuine witnesses … must be isolated and assessed on a case-by-case basis.”18
For this translation into English, which is, as far as we are aware, the first translation into any European language, we relied on the Degé blockprint, the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma), and Paul Harrison’s edition. The Degé is the most widely circulating Kangyur. It primarily belongs to the Tshalpa line but also incorporates readings from the Thempangma Kangyurs. Since it mostly reproduces Recension B, it often accords with the earliest witness, the Dunhuang manuscript. It therefore preserves earlier readings, much less altered by the great revisions of the imperial period, than those in Recension A, which reflect those revisions. We concluded that reading the Degé text in close consultation with Harrison’s edition was a reasonable way to approach the translation of this text and to gain a fairly robust picture of the transmissional and recensional issues associated with it. We have revised the sigla used in Harrison’s edition (1992) to match those used in the University of Vienna’s Resources for Kanjur and Tanjur Studies,19 which were derived in large part from Harrison and Eimer (1997).20
Thus did I hear at one time: The Blessed One was residing on Vulture Peak in Rājagṛha together with a great saṅgha of sixty-two thousand monks, and with seventy-two thousand bodhisattva great beings who had gathered from the worlds of the ten directions. All of them had developed the higher perceptions. They had attained recollection, unobstructed eloquence, and absorption. They were perfectly mindful, intelligent, realized, devoted, humble, and modest. Their motivation was firm and indivisible like vajra. They perfectly applied themselves to all the qualities of buddhahood, and they had developed the most noble motivation. Without ever themselves forsaking the mind set on awakening, they caused others to adopt that same attitude. They were generous, self-controlled, restrained, gentle, and patient. Everything that was pleasant they would give away, and knew how to dedicate these acts. Their bodies, speech, and minds were adorned with the ornament of discipline. They had an impartial attitude toward all beings and they had donned the powerful armors of patience and gentleness. They had exercised diligence for countless billions of eons, and they reveled in the wisdom of the concentrations, liberations, absorptions, attainments, and higher knowledges. They were experts in the wisdom and insight of unobstructed eloquence with respect to the distinctions of all words. Their minds were unshakeable like Mount Sumeru.[F.254.b] Like earth, water, fire, wind, and mountains they were free of attachment and anger. They were abiding in great love and their splendor was unobstructed. They were abiding in great compassion and always diligent in caring for all beings. They were abiding in great joy and were delighted by the joy of Dharma. They were abiding21 in great equanimity and had reached nondual cognition.
They had completely transcended the eight worldly concerns—gain, loss, fame, disgrace, praise, blame, pleasure, and suffering. They had utterly defeated all the multitudes of wicked opponents and conquered the hostile forces of Māra and the afflictions. Their presence was as rare as the sight of the uḍumbara flower and, without being asked, they acted as virtuous friends for all sentient beings, always accompanying them until nirvāṇa.22 They uttered the great lion’s roar, resounding with the profound Dharma of the Buddha as well as with fearlessness. They were marked by the seal of the thus-gone ones. They taught clearly23 without any disturbance and their actions accorded with their words. They were diligent in the Dharma-way of suchness, and their light eclipsed the light of the sun and the moon. Their voices resounded throughout the ten directions, they contemplated all buddha qualities,24 and they upheld the treasury of the Dharma jewel. Their minds were focused on keeping the lineage of the Three Jewels unbroken. They were skilled in traveling to an infinity of buddha realms. They had the intelligence that is grounded in the discernment of all distinctions. To see and hear them was so beneficial that it was overwhelming. They constantly exerted themselves to bring sentient beings to maturity and they had reached the highest level of mastering insight and methods. They taught the Dharma to all sentient beings in the appropriate manner, knowing those who were of the highest faculties and those who were not.[F.255.a] They were skilled in observing the conduct of all sentient beings and they were naturally skilled in the pursuits and imputations of all beings. Due to their great fearlessness, they were dauntless, and they were utterly at peace from old age, sickness, death, and the afflictions. They had created roots of virtue in relation to a boundless number of billions of buddhas. They had gathered the accumulation of merit that completes the excellent major and minor marks, and they had also gathered the accumulation of wisdom.
They were inclined toward all the qualities of emptiness, the absence of marks, and the absence of wishes. They were free from aspiration.25 They were confident in the insight that all beings and phenomena are like illusions, mirages, dreams, reflections of the moon in water, optical illusions, echoes, and space. They were experts in the wisdom that teaches in the words of all languages, and they had achieved the four correct knowledges related to phenomena, meaning, language, and eloquence. They had actualized the power of supramundane insight, obtained the ten powers that possess great might, and developed the perceptions of the physical eye, the divine eye, the insight eye, the Dharma eye, and the buddha eye. They were experts in the wisdom that engages in all the ways of gathering the accumulations related to the branches of the path. They knew the procedures for developing the understanding of the bodhisattvas’ scriptural collection. They turned the irreversible Dharma wheel. They had reached the absorption of the seal of characteristics. They were experts in the wisdom related to the absorption of the vajra circle. They had manifested the absorption that controls all phenomena. They held the torch of the supreme Dharma Jewel. They perceived the mindstreams of all beings and were experts in seeing their thoughts.26 They were attending to all beings through the activity of awakened wisdom[F.255.b] and they were adorned with all the precious qualities replete with the most supreme of all aspects. Even if their praises were proclaimed for all the eons, this task would never come to an end.
Among the seventy-two thousand bodhisattvas were the bodhisattva great beings Priyaṃkara, Source of Joy, Ratnapāṇi, Ratnakusuma, Ratnaketu, Priyadarśana, Delightful to Behold, Ruciramati, Pleasing and Delightful, Dharaṇīdhara, Avalokiteśvara, Mahāsthāmaprāpta, Great Glory, Mārajit, Mandāravagandha, Vāyu, Joy of Truth, View of Equality,27 Meruśikharadhara, Merukūṭa, Meruvara, Jālinīprabha, Jayamati, Soothing Birth, Jagatīṃdhara, Worshiped by the King of Gods, Uttaramati, Asaṅgacitta, Dawn Intellect, Protector of Men, Boundless Precious Treasure, Prabhāketu, Prabhāśrī, Pradīparāja, Bodhimati,28 Adorned with Light, Manifold Flowers, Devarāja,29 Divine Perception,30 Subāhu,31 Sucintitacintin, Feet Consecrated with Wheels, Trampling with Unmoving Feet, Trampling with Vajra Feet, Subjugating the Three Worlds under One’s Feet, Joyful Eloquence, Swift Eloquence, Anācchedyapratibhāna, Blessed Eloquence, Gentle Sounds, Provider of All Beings’ Satisfaction, Brahmaghoṣa, Bhadrapāla, Ratnākara, Susārthavāha, Naradatta, Varuṇa, Maitreya, Mañjughoṣa, and Mañjuśrīkumārabhūta.32[F.256.a]
Also present were Śakra, Brahmā, and the protectors of the world, as well as gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, demigods, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, and nonhumans. They had all come from all parts of this great trichiliocosm and gathered in the assembly to behold the Blessed One, pay homage to him, revere him, and listen to the Dharma.
At that time, the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli was part of that retinue. When he saw that great assembly of bodhisattvas, he stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, prostrated to the feet of the Blessed One, circumambulated him three times, and knelt on his right knee. Bowing down with his palms joined together in the direction of the Blessed One, he uttered these verses of praise:
After the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli had praised the Blessed One with these fitting verses of praise, he said, “Blessed One, should I be granted the opportunity, I would like to ask a few questions of the Blessed One, the thus-gone one, the worthy one, the perfect Buddha.”
The Blessed One replied, “Noble son, ask whatever you wish of the Thus-Gone One, the worthy one, the perfect Buddha. I will answer your questions and bring satisfaction to your mind.”
The bodhisattva great being Divyamauli said, “Excellent!” and, heeding the Blessed One’s instructions, put his questions to the Blessed One.
“Blessed One, how do bodhisattvas become adorned with various types of eloquence? How do bodhisattvas become experts in the knowledge that is free of doubts with respect to the profound Dharma? How do bodhisattvas become experts in knowing which sentient beings are of the highest faculties and which are not? How do bodhisattvas become experts in teaching the Dharma in accordance with each being individually? How do bodhisattvas become experts in knowing the mental activity39 of all beings?[F.257.b] How do bodhisattvas act without forgetting the knowledge of how causes, deeds,40 and actions ripen? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of generosity? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of discipline? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of patience? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of diligence? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of concentration? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of insight? How do bodhisattvas become experts in the path of purity? How do the higher perceptions of bodhisattvas remain free of decline? How do bodhisattvas become victorious in battle? How do bodhisattvas remain on the far shore after having crossed over? How do bodhisattvas display and imitate the conduct of hearers, solitary buddhas, and all beings while remaining without concepts? How do bodhisattvas set their sights on saṃsāra without remaining in nirvāṇa? How do bodhisattvas consider various elements without parting from the realm of phenomena? How do bodhisattvas not give up being of benefit even when they appear to be engaging in harmful actions? How do bodhisattvas possess wealth due to merit and how are they without wealth due to skillful means? How do bodhisattvas enter the gate without attributes through the gateway of the syllable a?[F.258.a] How do bodhisattvas actualize all buddha qualities? How do bodhisattvas gain certainty about the Dharma and discern its distinctions? How do bodhisattvas act in accord with the world while remaining untainted by afflictions? How do bodhisattvas come to possess the might of the Dharma that is invisible to others? How are bodhisattvas never without meeting the thus-gone ones? How do bodhisattvas remain composed and undisturbed? How do bodhisattvas become teachers without grasping at the teachings? How do bodhisattvas become the teachers of all beings? How do bodhisattvas turn the Dharma wheel of all the buddhas? How do bodhisattvas obtain consecration into all buddha qualities?”
When the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli had asked those questions, the Blessed One expressed his approval to him: “Excellent, noble son, excellent! You act for the benefit and happiness of many beings; out of love for the world, you intend to benefit a vast number of beings and to bring assistance and happiness to gods and humans. Noble son, you have asked these questions to the Thus-Gone One to ensure that this Great Vehicle endures for a long time, because you care for the sentient beings of the present and future. Your intention is excellent! Noble son, listen carefully and pay attention. I shall now explain this.”
The bodhisattva great being Divyamauli said, “Excellent!” and listened as the Blessed One had directed.[F.258.b] The Blessed One then said:
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with various types of eloquence. What are those four? They are (1) illuminating all beings unimpededly and giving them all precious and pleasant goods without regrets, (2) not opposing the words of other Dharma preachers but rejoicing in their teachings and giving them their approval with joy, delight, trust, and enthusiasm, (3) being delighted when listening to the Dharma, discussing it, or when they are requested to assist with the stūpa of a well-gone one or to stay the night there, and (4) giving the gift of the Dharma with the motivation of the mind of awakening, free from concern for material things. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with various types of eloquence.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in the knowledge that is free of doubts with respect to the profound Dharma. What are those four? They are (1) being in accord with dependent origination, (2) realizing the nature of all beings as they realize their own nature, (3) understanding that all formations do not come from and do not go anywhere, and (4) being confident that all phenomena are marked by the seal of space. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in the knowledge that is free of doubts with respect to the profound Dharma.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in knowing which beings are of the highest faculties and which are not. What are those four? They are (1) being well trained in the gateway to the realm of phenomena, (2) having actualized the gateway to the absence of obscuration, (3) knowing how to sport in the higher perceptions,[F.259.a] and (4) having pliable minds and perfect absorption. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in knowing which beings are of the highest faculties and which are not.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in teaching the Dharma in accordance with each being individually. What are those four? They are (1) knowing the four correct knowledges, (2) knowing how to guide beings, (3) knowing the distinctions of the Dharma, and (4) knowing how to train the minds of all beings by having trained their own minds. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in teaching the Dharma in accordance with each being individually.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in knowing the mental activity of all beings.41 What are those four? They are (1) being guided by insight, (2) being endowed with wisdom free of attachment, (3) having eliminated all obscurations by applying methods, and (4) having thoroughly trained minds. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in knowing the mental activity of all beings.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will act without forgetting the knowledge of how causes, deeds, and actions ripen. What are those four? They are (1) not being a proponent of nihilism, (2) not being a proponent of eternalism, (3) correctly knowing the effects of causes, deeds, and actions, and (4) recognizing the true nature of phenomena and describing phenomena as phenomena without imputing any notions of ‘I’ and ‘mine.’ By engaging in activities in that way, bodhisattvas will not disregard the effects of causes, deeds, and actions. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities,[F.259.b] they will act without forgetting the knowledge of how causes, deeds, and actions ripen.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of generosity. What are those four? They are (1) being adorned with the major marks, (2) being ornamented by the excellent minor marks, (3) having an appearance that others never get tired of looking at, and (4) receiving jewels in their hands and thereby possessing inexhaustible wealth. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of generosity.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of discipline. What are those four? They are (1) becoming universal monarchs and being adorned with the mind set on awakening, (2) becoming Śakra, lord of the gods, and being adorned with the mind set on awakening, (3) becoming Brahmā, lord of the Sahā world, and being adorned with the mind set on awakening, and (4) taking birth as gods or humans after having cut off the entrances to all the lower realms, and being adorned with the mind of awakening. Noble son, you should know that if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities they will be adorned with the ornament of discipline.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of patience. What are those four? They are (1) having pleasing voices and speech like that of Brahmā, (2) having voices like the song of kalaviṅka birds, or like music, (3) being pleasing and delightful to many beings when seen, and (4) being firmly committed to virtue. Noble son, you should know that, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of patience.
“Noble son, you should know that, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of diligence. What are those four? They are (1) being firmly committed to virtuous qualities through contentment that is grounded in commitment,[F.260.a] (2) achieving vajra bodies that cannot be subdued by others, (3) acting as virtuous friends for all beings without being asked, out of a desire to help, and (4) never becoming weary or sated while accumulating a wealth of learning. Noble son, you should know that, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of diligence.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of concentration. What are those four? They are (1) not being agitated, (2) not being stupefied, (3) not talking nonsense, and (4) never forsaking the insightful mind. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of concentration.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of insight. What are those four? They are (1) not being proponents of a self, a sentient being, a life principle, an individuality, a soul, or a person, (2) possessing unobstructed eloquence, (3) being expert in knowing how to teach the distinctions of all words, and (4) being free from doubts and hesitations with respect to all Dharma teachings. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of insight.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in the path of purity. What are those four? They are (1) producing love that manifests in order to be a refuge for all sentient beings, (2) producing great compassion that manifests in order to ripen all beings, (3) producing joy that manifests due to being delighted with all phenomena, and (4) producing equanimity that manifests for the sake of the wisdom of the thus-gone ones.[F.260.b] Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in the path of purity.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, their higher perceptions will remain free of decline. What are those four? They are (1) possessing the knowledge that subsumes the four concentrations, (2) knowing the way to accomplish the four formless attainments, (3) knowing how to control their minds, and (4) being able to travel to countless buddha realms to behold buddhas. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, their higher perceptions will remain free of decline.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be victorious in battle. What are those four? They are (1) being peaceful inwardly, (2) not letting their minds wander outwardly, (3) understanding all phenomena to be like illusions, and (4) being endowed with the power of wisdom, not the power of afflictions. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be victorious in battles.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will remain on the far shore after having crossed over. What are those four? They are (1) understanding the river of desire but not manifesting the freedom from attachment, (2) understanding the river of existence but taking birth intentionally, (3) understanding the river of views but not forsaking those who are bound by the fetters of views, and (4) understanding the river of ignorance but acting in harmony with dependent origination. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will remain on the far shore after having crossed over.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will display and imitate the conduct of hearers, solitary buddhas, and all beings while remaining without concepts.[F.261.a] What are those four? They are (1) having accomplished the illusory absorption, (2) having ascertained that all phenomena are characterized by involvement in fabrication, (3) knowing how to sport by means of the five higher perceptions, and (4) being skilled in manifesting mental bodies. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will display and imitate the conduct of hearers, solitary buddhas, and all beings while remaining without concepts.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will set their sights on saṃsāra without remaining in nirvāṇa. What are those four? They are (1) being endowed with the blessings of the buddhas, (2) the attitude of great compassion, (3) skill in means, and (4) not forsaking past promises. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will set their sights on saṃsāra without remaining in nirvāṇa.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will attend to the various elements without parting from the realm of phenomena. What are those four? They are (1) understanding that phenomena lack intrinsic existence since sentient beings lack intrinsic existence, (2) understanding that sentient beings lack intrinsic existence since phenomena lack intrinsic existence, (3) being confident that buddha qualities lack intrinsic existence since sentient beings lack intrinsic existence, and (4) being free from doubts and hesitation about the fact that sentient beings lack intrinsic existence. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will attend to the various elements without parting from the realm of phenomena.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will not give up being of benefit even when they appear to be engaging in harmful actions. What are those four? They are (1) having their thoughts directed toward nirvāṇa,[F.261.b] (2) having their deeds directed toward saṃsāra, (3) having their minds directed toward the perfection of all buddha qualities, and (4) manifesting in the domains of the hearers and solitary buddhas. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will not give up being of benefit even when they appear to be engaging in harmful actions.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will possess wealth due to merit and be without wealth due to skillful means. What are those four? They are (1) manifesting as universal monarchs due to their merit, or as Śakra, or Brahmā, in order to tame beings that are attracted to greatness, (2) manifesting as destitute and lowly beings to tame ordinary beings, (3) giving away all of their possessions upon seeing beggars and thus becoming poor, and (4) manifesting an inexhaustible amount of wealth through their merit upon seeing someone very rich. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will possess wealth due to merit and be without wealth due to skillful means.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will enter the gate without attributes through the gateway of the syllable a. What are those four? They are (1) refining the understanding that ‘all formations are impermanent,’ (2) having reached the understanding that ‘all formations have always been suffering,’ (3) refining the view that ‘all phenomena are selfless,’ and (4) gaining the wisdom that ‘nirvāṇa has always been peaceful.’ Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will enter the gate without attributes through the gateway of the syllable a.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will actualize all buddha qualities. What are those four? They are (1) possessing the pure eye of insight,[F.262.a] (2) having obtained illumination through the Dharma eye, (3) having actualized the buddha eye, and (4) having been consecrated into all buddha qualities. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will actualize all buddha qualities.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will gain certainty about the Dharma and discern its distinctions. What are those four? They are (1) being unobscured with respect to the four correct knowledges, (2) understanding how to set forth the four truths, (3) understanding that the reliances are valid, and (4) knowing recollection free from distraction. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will gain certainty about the Dharma and discern its distinctions.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will act in accord with the world while remaining untainted by afflictions. What are those four? They are (1) directly perceiving mundane phenomena, (2) liberating beings from the world, (3) abandoning attachment and aggression, and (4) being naturally devoid of afflictions by virtue of their original purity and luminosity. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will act in accord with the world while remaining untainted by all its afflictions.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will possess the might of the Dharma that is invisible to others. What are those four? They are (1) the might of the mind, (2) the might of insight, (3) the might of wisdom, and (4) the might of methods. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will possess the might of the Dharma that is invisible to others.[F.262.b]
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will never be without meeting the thus-gone ones. What are those four? They are (1) encouraging sentient beings to meet the buddhas, (2) encouraging sentient beings to listen to the Dharma, (3) encouraging sentient beings to arouse the mind set on awakening, and (4) never parting from the absorption in which one calls to mind the buddhas. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will never be without meeting the thus-gone ones.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will remain composed and undisturbed. What are those four? They are (1) having actualized the vision of liberated wisdom through the noble supramundane insight, (2) knowing all phenomena as they truly are by thoroughly investigating the truth, (3) being skilled in severing all the fetters of habitual tendencies, and (4) not being disturbed by afflictions. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will remain composed and undisturbed.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be teachers without grasping at the teachings. What are those four? They are (1) providing excellent beneficial things to all beings, (2) ripening beings in a constant and undeceiving manner, (3) not being attached to their own happiness, and (4) pursuing wisdom for the sake of all beings—not for themselves alone. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be teachers without grasping at the teachings.[F.263.a]
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be the teachers of all beings. What are those four? They are (1) accomplishing the benefit of others while disregarding their own benefit, (2) giving the joy of the Dharma to others while disregarding their own happiness, (3) untiringly teaching the Dharma just as they have heard it, and (4) sustaining themselves with the nourishment of the Dharma—not with material goods. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be the teachers of all beings.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will turn the Dharma wheel of all the buddhas. What are those four? They are (1) the ability of perfect recall, (2) possessing uninterrupted eloquence, (3) having knowledge of all beings’ thoughts, and (4) leading them on the path to nirvāṇa while teaching the indestructible Dharma. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will turn the Dharma wheel of all the buddhas.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will obtain consecration into all buddha qualities. What are those four? They are (1) having completely transcended all forms of conduct, (2) having reached acceptance of the unborn nature of phenomena and never regressing from bodhisattva conduct, (3) intentionally displaying life, death, and rebirth while being marked by the seal of irreversibility, and (4) dedicating themselves to the seal of the thus-gone ones and being skilled in progressing from one bodhisattva level to the next after reaching emancipation on the ten bodhisattva levels. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will obtain consecration into all buddha qualities.”
When the Blessed One had explained this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments,[F.263.b] this great trichiliocosm shook in six ways, a bright light pervaded the universe, and billions of gods living in the sky started to sing divine songs. They caused a rain of divine mandārava flowers to fall and exclaimed, “Oh! The unsurpassed and perfect awakening of the blessed buddhas that has been described in this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments was achieved countless billions of eons ago by the Blessed One!42 Blessed One, those sentient beings who hear this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments, develop interest upon hearing it, and then retain it, carry it, read it, comprehend it, and teach it to others without parting from the mind of awakening will not be endowed with trifling roots of virtue. Just as the Thus-Gone One, the worthy one, the perfect Buddha proclaimed the lion’s roar today, they will proclaim the lion’s roar within the worlds of gods, humans, and demigods. Blessed One, we are very fortunate to have heard this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments!”
When the Blessed One had explained this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments, eighty-four thousand gods and humans gave rise to the mind set on unsurpassed and perfect awakening, and twelve thousand bodhisattvas reached acceptance of the unborn nature of phenomena.
Then, the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli asked the Blessed One, “Blessed One, what are the qualities that will be possessed by the bodhisattvas who retain a sūtra like this one after the Thus-Gone One’s passing,[F.264.a] and who teach it at length to others?”
“Noble son,” replied the Blessed One, “the bodhisattvas who retain such a sūtra after the Thus-Gone One’s passing, and who teach it in a vast way to others, will possess eight qualities. What are those eight? (1) Their intent with respect to perfect awakening will be definitive—they will possess a perfect attitude. (2) They will be devoid of anger toward any being—they will cultivate the practice of great love. (3) They will abide by the activity of ripening beings—they will abide by great compassion. (4) They will wish for the Dharma and exert themselves in its pursuit. (5) They will be insatiable in their pursuit of learning and their level of erudition will become as vast as an ocean. (6) They will uphold the sacred Dharma even at the cost of their bodies and lives. (7) They will gather the accumulation of merit and their roots of virtue will be firm. (8) They will be blessed by the power of the buddhas such that they become perfected in their aspirations, and, within the entourage, they will know no fear and they will defeat all demons and opponents. Noble son, the bodhisattvas who uphold such a sūtra after the Thus-Gone One’s passing, and who fully teach it to others, will be endowed with those eight qualities.”
Then, through the power of the Buddha, this great trichiliocosm shook in six ways, all the higher and lower regions, the black mountains, and all springs, lakes, ponds, and oceans disappeared, and this entire earth became flat like the palm of the hand.[F.264.b] Still, all the beings living in the water remained unharmed. Also, throughout this great trichiliocosm all the trees that had withered centuries before started to bloom and bear various fruits. These trees then bent in the direction of the Blessed One and paid homage to him. All of the other trees also started to bloom and bear various fruits, before bending in the direction of the Blessed One and paying homage to him. Bright, lovely, colorful, fragrant, and delightful lotuses the size of chariot wheels sprang up from the earth, and a dazzling light illuminated this great trichiliocosm. Without anyone being seen or anything being played, divine music and singing were heard from the sky. Colorful divine flowers that emanated the most delicious fragrances, which had never been experienced before, now appeared on the majestic Himavat mountains as well as on the majestic Mount Gandhamādana, and their sweet fragrances spread throughout this great trichiliocosm. A great rain of flowers then fell from the majestic Himavat mountains and from the majestic Mount Gandhamādana onto the retinue of the Blessed One, covering the earth up to their knees. Rains of various types of flowers fell from the blooming trees and the sounds of music and song resounded all around. A parasol made of all kinds of precious gems and measuring about a million leagues covered the sky. Pearl garlands and lattices formed by different types of small precious bells were hanging from that bejeweled parasol. The small bells rang out with the most delightful,[F.265.a] enthralling, and enrapturing sounds that pervade this great trichiliocosm.
At that moment, Venerable Śāriputra asked the Blessed One, “Blessed One, whose coming is augured by these delightful and pleasurable signs that manifest on such a vast scale and adorn this great trichiliocosm so richly?”
“Śāriputra,” replied the Blessed One, “these are the signs of the arrival of Druma, the king of the kinnaras. He is coming from Mount Gandhamādana with a retinue of many thousands of kinnaras, a retinue of many thousands of gandharvas, and a retinue of many thousands of gods.”
As soon as the Blessed One had said those words, the kinnara king Druma arrived at the place where the Blessed One was residing. He was accompanied by eighty-four thousand musicians and singers and surrounded by a retinue of several hundred thousand. From the sky above a stream of flowers rained down. When he arrived, he prostrated with his retinue at the feet of the Blessed One, circumambulated him three times, and sat in front of him. In the presence of the Blessed One and accompanied by the eighty-four thousand musicians, the kinnara king Druma then began to play his lute. Its body was made of beryl and it had trim and veneer made of gold from the Jambū River.43 It was adorned with gold, jewels, and many precious substances, and purified through the ripening of his previous actions. As soon as the kinnara king Druma started to play, the tunes of his lute resounded throughout this great trichiliocosm. The tunes from his lute outclassed all the divine music from the strings and songs of the gods of the desire realm, to the point that these could no longer be heard.[F.265.b] Then, impelled by the tunes of that lute, the gods of the desire realm put down their divine instruments and came to the place where the Blessed One was residing. As soon as the kinnara king Druma started to play his lute, all the trees, and the majestic mountains Sumeru, Himavat, Gandhamādana, Mucilinda, and Mahāmucilinda, the black mountains, and all blades of grass, branches, medicinal plants, and forests of this great trichiliocosm started to vibrate, shudder, and reel; wobble, rock, and sway; and quiver, tremble, and quake. Just as someone intoxicated by liquor staggers, reels, and wobbles, all those trees and mountains started to bend, bow, and twist.[B2]
With the exception of the bodhisattvas who had reached the level of irreversibility, as soon as the kinnara king Druma started to play his beryl lute, all those who had gathered in the assembly surrounding the Blessed One—the dispassionate monks, nuns, male lay practitioners, and female lay practitioners, as well as the gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, demigods, garuḍas, kinnaras, and mahoragas, Śakra, Brahmā, the protectors of the world, humans, nonhumans, worthy ones absorbed in the eight liberations, and the entire retinue—became overwhelmed upon hearing the tunes emitted by that lute. They stood up and started to shake, shiver, and tremble; they bent, bowed, and twisted; and they danced, swayed, and whirled. Even all the great hearers could not remain in their seats. They trembled, shook, acted wildly,[F.266.a] and danced around like small children.
The bodhisattva Divyamauli said to all those great hearers, “Venerable ones, great hearers, you are free from afflictions, you are absorbed in the eight liberations, and you have seen the four truths. Why can you no longer control your bodies? Venerable ones, you are dancing around like small children!”
“Noble son,” replied the great hearers, “as the kinnara king Druma picked up his lute and started playing it, the music and songs made it impossible for us to remain in our seats; we began to shake, shiver, and tremble, and we were unable to control our minds.”
The bodhisattva Divyamauli then said to the elder Mahākāśyapa, “Venerable Mahākāśyapa, you have reached old age and are frail, you are content and have few desires, you uphold the ascetic practices, and you are the focus of worship for the world with its gods, humans, and demigods. Why can you no longer control your body? You are an elder, but you dance around like a small child!”
“Noble son,” said the elder Mahākāśyapa, “when a violent wind is blowing during a hurricane, all the plants, forests, and mountains become powerless and weak; they cannot remain in place and quiver, tremble, shake, and wobble against their will. Noble son, in the same way, upon hearing the tunes emitted by the lute of the kinnara king Druma, we became unable to control ourselves, just like great mountains shaken by a violent hurricane. Why is that so? Because such are the extraordinary qualities of the aspiration, merit, and wisdom of this sublime being.[F.266.b] They outclass the merit, wisdom, and magnificence of the hearers.”
The bodhisattva Divyamauli continued, “Venerable Mahākāśyapa, the tunes emitted by this lute are unable to affect and shake the splendor, the magnificence, and the power of the bodhisattvas who have reached the level of irreversibility. Therefore, Venerable Mahākāśyapa, why would one not give rise to the mind set on unsurpassed and perfect awakening? Notice how the power and magnificence of those who possess limited wisdom is outclassed by the tunes of that lute, and how the power and magnificence of the followers of the Great Vehicle cannot be outclassed.”
At that moment, when the kinnara king Druma played his lute, through the power of the Buddha and the blessings of his previous aspirations, these verses manifested from his lute and the other eighty-four thousand instruments:
As these verses were manifested, their elucidations caused one hundred thousand bodhisattvas to reach acceptance of the unborn nature of phenomena.
Then, the bodhisattva Divyamauli asked the Blessed One, “Blessed One, where do these verses come from?”
“Noble son,” replied the Blessed One, “Ask the kinnara king Druma. He will answer your question.”
The bodhisattva Divyamauli then asked the kinnara king Druma, “Lord of the kinnaras, where did these manifested verses appear from?”
The kinnara king Druma replied, “They come from where the words pronounced by all beings come from.”
“Lord of the kinnaras, where do the words pronounced by all beings come from?”
“Noble son, the words pronounced by all beings come from space.”
The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma, initiated by the questions of the bodhisattva Divyamauli, consists of a series of teachings by the kinnara king Druma, given within a rich narrative framework in which music plays a central role in teaching the Dharma. This sūtra presents a variety of well-known Great Vehicle Buddhist themes, but special attention is given to the six bodhisattva perfections and the perfection of skillful means, as well as to the doctrine of emptiness that is discussed throughout the text.
This text was translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Benjamin Collet-Cassart translated the text from Tibetan into English and wrote the introduction. Andreas Doctor compared the draft translation with the original Tibetan and edited the text. The translators would like to thank Paul Harrison for reading the translation and offering many helpful suggestions.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The generous sponsorship of Sharon Xu and Michael Pan, which helped make the work on this translation possible, is most gratefully acknowledged.
The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma1 is a scripture that belongs to the general sūtra section of the Tibetan Kangyur. The sūtra presents a series of teachings focusing on the doctrine of emptiness and the bodhisattvas’ perfections, presented in a rich narrative framework in which Druma, the king of the kinnaras, is the protagonist. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Hindu literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal (usually half bird). They are also usually depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians. King Druma is himself a well-known figure in canonical Sanskrit sources, where he frequently appears, albeit mostly in minor roles, offering musical worship to the Buddha. For example, King Druma appears in such a role in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra (Toh 113)2 where he is one of four kinnara kings (the other three are Mahādharma, Sudharma, and Dharmadhara) attending the Buddha’s teaching. He is also included in the Samādhirājasūtra (Toh 127)3 where he arrives with his queens to make an offering of his music to the Buddha.
The title of this text is actually somewhat misleading since the questions that bring forth the sūtra’s doctrinal content are not in fact posed by Druma, but instead by the bodhisattva Divyamauli, who is the primary interlocutor throughout this sūtra. As such Druma assumes the role of the teacher who over the course of the text displays a profound understanding of the doctrine of emptiness. The Buddha accordingly commends him for his grasp of the truth and extols Druma as a great bodhisattva whose level of realization far surpasses that of any hearer or solitary buddha. Toward the end of the teaching, the Buddha also prophesies Druma’s future awakening in great detail.
Music plays a central role throughout this sūtra. As Paul Harrison has noted, music is presented in several episodes as a metaphor for the ungraspable nature of reality—emptiness—as it serves as the basis for Druma’s teachings to Divyamauli and the rest of the assembly.4 In one remarkable episode, the power of Druma’s music is such that even the accomplished elders among the monks lose control of their bodies and start to dance helplessly to the tune of Druma’s lute, while only those who have reached the bodhisattva levels are able to remain seated.
The sūtra elaborates on a variety of general themes associated with the Great Vehicle. As well as the doctrine of emptiness, discussed at various points in the text, it gives special attention to the six perfections and in particular to the mastery of skillful means. It also contains a lengthy teaching on the ways in which women can be reborn with a male body—something that, according to several Great Vehicle sūtras, is a prerequisite for attaining awakening as a buddha.5
In terms of traditional scholarship, several citations from this sūtra appear in the Caryāmelāpakapradīpa, an influential work attributed to the “tantric” Āryadeva.6 The sūtra is also briefly cited in the Subhāṣitasaṃgraha, an anonymous anthology of tantric works.7 While no Sanskrit manuscript of The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma appears to be extant, we do have translations of this sūtra in both Chinese and Tibetan. Two Chinese translations are available: one produced by Lokakṣema (T.624) and the other by Kumārajīva (T.625). Lokakṣema was born around 147
The Tibetan translation was completed in the early translation period and is listed in the early ninth-century Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) catalogue. According to the colophon to the Tibetan translation, the sūtra was translated into Tibetan by the prolific translators Kawa Paltsek (ska ba dpal brtsegs) and Palkyi Lhünpo (dpal gyi lhun po),10 both of whom participated in numerous translation projects in Tibet during the early translation period when the majority of Indian sūtras were translated into Tibetan (late eighth to early ninth century). Kawa Paltsek was also one of the initial seven Tibetans to be ordained during the founding of the first Tibetan monastery of Samyé (bsam yas). He translated numerous canonical texts, both sūtra and tantra, and became one of the most active translators of his time. Some Tibetan translators, including Palkyi Lhünpo, are known to have translated certain Indian texts without the help of Indian teachers,11 and this may well have been the case with The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma, as no Indian scholars are mentioned in the colophon.
Our translation work benefited greatly from the work of Paul Harrison (1992), who published a full critical edition of the Tibetan text based on nine available witnesses—Stok Palace MS, London, Tokyo MS, Degé, Lithang, Peking, and Narthang, as well as the Phukdrak MS independent Kangyur and extant portions of a Dunhuang manuscript.12 In his work, the different versions of the text are grouped under two recensions, representing the Thempangma (them spangs ma) and Tshalpa (tshal pa) lines and respectively referred to as “Recension A” and “Recension B.” Stok Palace MS, London, and Tokyo MS are grouped under Recension A and Degé, Lithang, Peking, and Narthang13 under Recension B. According to Harrison’s findings, the Phukdrak MS version of the text mostly agrees with the texts of the Thempangma line while the Dunhuang manuscript mostly corresponds with those of the Tshalpa line. He observes that these groups of versions belong to distinct “recensions” in that they reflect major “recensional variation”—significant editorial changes such as extensive alterations to the wording of the text and systematic substitution of different terminology—and not just “transmissional variation.” Those groups of texts are indeed quite different in ways that cannot be accounted for by scribal error or casual emendation.14 Harrison subsequently discovered while sifting through the damaged and disheveled Tabo Kangyur that about 13% of this text is preserved there too. Upon collating this with his existing edition, he observed that it is not a Thempangma copy, “but bears a version derived independently from the revision process which produced Recension A of the text, which on the whole it reproduces with remarkable fidelity.”15
Harrison’s critical edition is a reconstruction of Recension A, which he takes to be “a fair but possibly later reflection of the fully revised translation produced at the beginning of the ninth century.”16 He argues that the texts included in Recension A seem closer to standard revised translations than the texts included in Recension B, since they accord more with the Mahāvyutpatti.17 Yet his conclusion, in the light of his analysis of the available witnesses of the text, is that “no representative…, no matter how venerable, may be given priority or regarded as invariably the ‘best text.’ This means that variants between genuine witnesses … must be isolated and assessed on a case-by-case basis.”18
For this translation into English, which is, as far as we are aware, the first translation into any European language, we relied on the Degé blockprint, the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma), and Paul Harrison’s edition. The Degé is the most widely circulating Kangyur. It primarily belongs to the Tshalpa line but also incorporates readings from the Thempangma Kangyurs. Since it mostly reproduces Recension B, it often accords with the earliest witness, the Dunhuang manuscript. It therefore preserves earlier readings, much less altered by the great revisions of the imperial period, than those in Recension A, which reflect those revisions. We concluded that reading the Degé text in close consultation with Harrison’s edition was a reasonable way to approach the translation of this text and to gain a fairly robust picture of the transmissional and recensional issues associated with it. We have revised the sigla used in Harrison’s edition (1992) to match those used in the University of Vienna’s Resources for Kanjur and Tanjur Studies,19 which were derived in large part from Harrison and Eimer (1997).20
Thus did I hear at one time: The Blessed One was residing on Vulture Peak in Rājagṛha together with a great saṅgha of sixty-two thousand monks, and with seventy-two thousand bodhisattva great beings who had gathered from the worlds of the ten directions. All of them had developed the higher perceptions. They had attained recollection, unobstructed eloquence, and absorption. They were perfectly mindful, intelligent, realized, devoted, humble, and modest. Their motivation was firm and indivisible like vajra. They perfectly applied themselves to all the qualities of buddhahood, and they had developed the most noble motivation. Without ever themselves forsaking the mind set on awakening, they caused others to adopt that same attitude. They were generous, self-controlled, restrained, gentle, and patient. Everything that was pleasant they would give away, and knew how to dedicate these acts. Their bodies, speech, and minds were adorned with the ornament of discipline. They had an impartial attitude toward all beings and they had donned the powerful armors of patience and gentleness. They had exercised diligence for countless billions of eons, and they reveled in the wisdom of the concentrations, liberations, absorptions, attainments, and higher knowledges. They were experts in the wisdom and insight of unobstructed eloquence with respect to the distinctions of all words. Their minds were unshakeable like Mount Sumeru.[F.254.b] Like earth, water, fire, wind, and mountains they were free of attachment and anger. They were abiding in great love and their splendor was unobstructed. They were abiding in great compassion and always diligent in caring for all beings. They were abiding in great joy and were delighted by the joy of Dharma. They were abiding21 in great equanimity and had reached nondual cognition.
They had completely transcended the eight worldly concerns—gain, loss, fame, disgrace, praise, blame, pleasure, and suffering. They had utterly defeated all the multitudes of wicked opponents and conquered the hostile forces of Māra and the afflictions. Their presence was as rare as the sight of the uḍumbara flower and, without being asked, they acted as virtuous friends for all sentient beings, always accompanying them until nirvāṇa.22 They uttered the great lion’s roar, resounding with the profound Dharma of the Buddha as well as with fearlessness. They were marked by the seal of the thus-gone ones. They taught clearly23 without any disturbance and their actions accorded with their words. They were diligent in the Dharma-way of suchness, and their light eclipsed the light of the sun and the moon. Their voices resounded throughout the ten directions, they contemplated all buddha qualities,24 and they upheld the treasury of the Dharma jewel. Their minds were focused on keeping the lineage of the Three Jewels unbroken. They were skilled in traveling to an infinity of buddha realms. They had the intelligence that is grounded in the discernment of all distinctions. To see and hear them was so beneficial that it was overwhelming. They constantly exerted themselves to bring sentient beings to maturity and they had reached the highest level of mastering insight and methods. They taught the Dharma to all sentient beings in the appropriate manner, knowing those who were of the highest faculties and those who were not.[F.255.a] They were skilled in observing the conduct of all sentient beings and they were naturally skilled in the pursuits and imputations of all beings. Due to their great fearlessness, they were dauntless, and they were utterly at peace from old age, sickness, death, and the afflictions. They had created roots of virtue in relation to a boundless number of billions of buddhas. They had gathered the accumulation of merit that completes the excellent major and minor marks, and they had also gathered the accumulation of wisdom.
They were inclined toward all the qualities of emptiness, the absence of marks, and the absence of wishes. They were free from aspiration.25 They were confident in the insight that all beings and phenomena are like illusions, mirages, dreams, reflections of the moon in water, optical illusions, echoes, and space. They were experts in the wisdom that teaches in the words of all languages, and they had achieved the four correct knowledges related to phenomena, meaning, language, and eloquence. They had actualized the power of supramundane insight, obtained the ten powers that possess great might, and developed the perceptions of the physical eye, the divine eye, the insight eye, the Dharma eye, and the buddha eye. They were experts in the wisdom that engages in all the ways of gathering the accumulations related to the branches of the path. They knew the procedures for developing the understanding of the bodhisattvas’ scriptural collection. They turned the irreversible Dharma wheel. They had reached the absorption of the seal of characteristics. They were experts in the wisdom related to the absorption of the vajra circle. They had manifested the absorption that controls all phenomena. They held the torch of the supreme Dharma Jewel. They perceived the mindstreams of all beings and were experts in seeing their thoughts.26 They were attending to all beings through the activity of awakened wisdom[F.255.b] and they were adorned with all the precious qualities replete with the most supreme of all aspects. Even if their praises were proclaimed for all the eons, this task would never come to an end.
Among the seventy-two thousand bodhisattvas were the bodhisattva great beings Priyaṃkara, Source of Joy, Ratnapāṇi, Ratnakusuma, Ratnaketu, Priyadarśana, Delightful to Behold, Ruciramati, Pleasing and Delightful, Dharaṇīdhara, Avalokiteśvara, Mahāsthāmaprāpta, Great Glory, Mārajit, Mandāravagandha, Vāyu, Joy of Truth, View of Equality,27 Meruśikharadhara, Merukūṭa, Meruvara, Jālinīprabha, Jayamati, Soothing Birth, Jagatīṃdhara, Worshiped by the King of Gods, Uttaramati, Asaṅgacitta, Dawn Intellect, Protector of Men, Boundless Precious Treasure, Prabhāketu, Prabhāśrī, Pradīparāja, Bodhimati,28 Adorned with Light, Manifold Flowers, Devarāja,29 Divine Perception,30 Subāhu,31 Sucintitacintin, Feet Consecrated with Wheels, Trampling with Unmoving Feet, Trampling with Vajra Feet, Subjugating the Three Worlds under One’s Feet, Joyful Eloquence, Swift Eloquence, Anācchedyapratibhāna, Blessed Eloquence, Gentle Sounds, Provider of All Beings’ Satisfaction, Brahmaghoṣa, Bhadrapāla, Ratnākara, Susārthavāha, Naradatta, Varuṇa, Maitreya, Mañjughoṣa, and Mañjuśrīkumārabhūta.32[F.256.a]
Also present were Śakra, Brahmā, and the protectors of the world, as well as gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, demigods, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, and nonhumans. They had all come from all parts of this great trichiliocosm and gathered in the assembly to behold the Blessed One, pay homage to him, revere him, and listen to the Dharma.
At that time, the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli was part of that retinue. When he saw that great assembly of bodhisattvas, he stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, prostrated to the feet of the Blessed One, circumambulated him three times, and knelt on his right knee. Bowing down with his palms joined together in the direction of the Blessed One, he uttered these verses of praise:
After the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli had praised the Blessed One with these fitting verses of praise, he said, “Blessed One, should I be granted the opportunity, I would like to ask a few questions of the Blessed One, the thus-gone one, the worthy one, the perfect Buddha.”
The Blessed One replied, “Noble son, ask whatever you wish of the Thus-Gone One, the worthy one, the perfect Buddha. I will answer your questions and bring satisfaction to your mind.”
The bodhisattva great being Divyamauli said, “Excellent!” and, heeding the Blessed One’s instructions, put his questions to the Blessed One.
“Blessed One, how do bodhisattvas become adorned with various types of eloquence? How do bodhisattvas become experts in the knowledge that is free of doubts with respect to the profound Dharma? How do bodhisattvas become experts in knowing which sentient beings are of the highest faculties and which are not? How do bodhisattvas become experts in teaching the Dharma in accordance with each being individually? How do bodhisattvas become experts in knowing the mental activity39 of all beings?[F.257.b] How do bodhisattvas act without forgetting the knowledge of how causes, deeds,40 and actions ripen? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of generosity? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of discipline? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of patience? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of diligence? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of concentration? How do bodhisattvas become adorned with the ornament of insight? How do bodhisattvas become experts in the path of purity? How do the higher perceptions of bodhisattvas remain free of decline? How do bodhisattvas become victorious in battle? How do bodhisattvas remain on the far shore after having crossed over? How do bodhisattvas display and imitate the conduct of hearers, solitary buddhas, and all beings while remaining without concepts? How do bodhisattvas set their sights on saṃsāra without remaining in nirvāṇa? How do bodhisattvas consider various elements without parting from the realm of phenomena? How do bodhisattvas not give up being of benefit even when they appear to be engaging in harmful actions? How do bodhisattvas possess wealth due to merit and how are they without wealth due to skillful means? How do bodhisattvas enter the gate without attributes through the gateway of the syllable a?[F.258.a] How do bodhisattvas actualize all buddha qualities? How do bodhisattvas gain certainty about the Dharma and discern its distinctions? How do bodhisattvas act in accord with the world while remaining untainted by afflictions? How do bodhisattvas come to possess the might of the Dharma that is invisible to others? How are bodhisattvas never without meeting the thus-gone ones? How do bodhisattvas remain composed and undisturbed? How do bodhisattvas become teachers without grasping at the teachings? How do bodhisattvas become the teachers of all beings? How do bodhisattvas turn the Dharma wheel of all the buddhas? How do bodhisattvas obtain consecration into all buddha qualities?”
When the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli had asked those questions, the Blessed One expressed his approval to him: “Excellent, noble son, excellent! You act for the benefit and happiness of many beings; out of love for the world, you intend to benefit a vast number of beings and to bring assistance and happiness to gods and humans. Noble son, you have asked these questions to the Thus-Gone One to ensure that this Great Vehicle endures for a long time, because you care for the sentient beings of the present and future. Your intention is excellent! Noble son, listen carefully and pay attention. I shall now explain this.”
The bodhisattva great being Divyamauli said, “Excellent!” and listened as the Blessed One had directed.[F.258.b] The Blessed One then said:
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with various types of eloquence. What are those four? They are (1) illuminating all beings unimpededly and giving them all precious and pleasant goods without regrets, (2) not opposing the words of other Dharma preachers but rejoicing in their teachings and giving them their approval with joy, delight, trust, and enthusiasm, (3) being delighted when listening to the Dharma, discussing it, or when they are requested to assist with the stūpa of a well-gone one or to stay the night there, and (4) giving the gift of the Dharma with the motivation of the mind of awakening, free from concern for material things. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with various types of eloquence.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in the knowledge that is free of doubts with respect to the profound Dharma. What are those four? They are (1) being in accord with dependent origination, (2) realizing the nature of all beings as they realize their own nature, (3) understanding that all formations do not come from and do not go anywhere, and (4) being confident that all phenomena are marked by the seal of space. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in the knowledge that is free of doubts with respect to the profound Dharma.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in knowing which beings are of the highest faculties and which are not. What are those four? They are (1) being well trained in the gateway to the realm of phenomena, (2) having actualized the gateway to the absence of obscuration, (3) knowing how to sport in the higher perceptions,[F.259.a] and (4) having pliable minds and perfect absorption. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in knowing which beings are of the highest faculties and which are not.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in teaching the Dharma in accordance with each being individually. What are those four? They are (1) knowing the four correct knowledges, (2) knowing how to guide beings, (3) knowing the distinctions of the Dharma, and (4) knowing how to train the minds of all beings by having trained their own minds. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in teaching the Dharma in accordance with each being individually.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in knowing the mental activity of all beings.41 What are those four? They are (1) being guided by insight, (2) being endowed with wisdom free of attachment, (3) having eliminated all obscurations by applying methods, and (4) having thoroughly trained minds. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in knowing the mental activity of all beings.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will act without forgetting the knowledge of how causes, deeds, and actions ripen. What are those four? They are (1) not being a proponent of nihilism, (2) not being a proponent of eternalism, (3) correctly knowing the effects of causes, deeds, and actions, and (4) recognizing the true nature of phenomena and describing phenomena as phenomena without imputing any notions of ‘I’ and ‘mine.’ By engaging in activities in that way, bodhisattvas will not disregard the effects of causes, deeds, and actions. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities,[F.259.b] they will act without forgetting the knowledge of how causes, deeds, and actions ripen.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of generosity. What are those four? They are (1) being adorned with the major marks, (2) being ornamented by the excellent minor marks, (3) having an appearance that others never get tired of looking at, and (4) receiving jewels in their hands and thereby possessing inexhaustible wealth. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of generosity.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of discipline. What are those four? They are (1) becoming universal monarchs and being adorned with the mind set on awakening, (2) becoming Śakra, lord of the gods, and being adorned with the mind set on awakening, (3) becoming Brahmā, lord of the Sahā world, and being adorned with the mind set on awakening, and (4) taking birth as gods or humans after having cut off the entrances to all the lower realms, and being adorned with the mind of awakening. Noble son, you should know that if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities they will be adorned with the ornament of discipline.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of patience. What are those four? They are (1) having pleasing voices and speech like that of Brahmā, (2) having voices like the song of kalaviṅka birds, or like music, (3) being pleasing and delightful to many beings when seen, and (4) being firmly committed to virtue. Noble son, you should know that, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of patience.
“Noble son, you should know that, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of diligence. What are those four? They are (1) being firmly committed to virtuous qualities through contentment that is grounded in commitment,[F.260.a] (2) achieving vajra bodies that cannot be subdued by others, (3) acting as virtuous friends for all beings without being asked, out of a desire to help, and (4) never becoming weary or sated while accumulating a wealth of learning. Noble son, you should know that, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of diligence.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of concentration. What are those four? They are (1) not being agitated, (2) not being stupefied, (3) not talking nonsense, and (4) never forsaking the insightful mind. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of concentration.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of insight. What are those four? They are (1) not being proponents of a self, a sentient being, a life principle, an individuality, a soul, or a person, (2) possessing unobstructed eloquence, (3) being expert in knowing how to teach the distinctions of all words, and (4) being free from doubts and hesitations with respect to all Dharma teachings. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be adorned with the ornament of insight.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be experts in the path of purity. What are those four? They are (1) producing love that manifests in order to be a refuge for all sentient beings, (2) producing great compassion that manifests in order to ripen all beings, (3) producing joy that manifests due to being delighted with all phenomena, and (4) producing equanimity that manifests for the sake of the wisdom of the thus-gone ones.[F.260.b] Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be experts in the path of purity.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, their higher perceptions will remain free of decline. What are those four? They are (1) possessing the knowledge that subsumes the four concentrations, (2) knowing the way to accomplish the four formless attainments, (3) knowing how to control their minds, and (4) being able to travel to countless buddha realms to behold buddhas. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, their higher perceptions will remain free of decline.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be victorious in battle. What are those four? They are (1) being peaceful inwardly, (2) not letting their minds wander outwardly, (3) understanding all phenomena to be like illusions, and (4) being endowed with the power of wisdom, not the power of afflictions. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be victorious in battles.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will remain on the far shore after having crossed over. What are those four? They are (1) understanding the river of desire but not manifesting the freedom from attachment, (2) understanding the river of existence but taking birth intentionally, (3) understanding the river of views but not forsaking those who are bound by the fetters of views, and (4) understanding the river of ignorance but acting in harmony with dependent origination. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will remain on the far shore after having crossed over.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will display and imitate the conduct of hearers, solitary buddhas, and all beings while remaining without concepts.[F.261.a] What are those four? They are (1) having accomplished the illusory absorption, (2) having ascertained that all phenomena are characterized by involvement in fabrication, (3) knowing how to sport by means of the five higher perceptions, and (4) being skilled in manifesting mental bodies. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will display and imitate the conduct of hearers, solitary buddhas, and all beings while remaining without concepts.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will set their sights on saṃsāra without remaining in nirvāṇa. What are those four? They are (1) being endowed with the blessings of the buddhas, (2) the attitude of great compassion, (3) skill in means, and (4) not forsaking past promises. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will set their sights on saṃsāra without remaining in nirvāṇa.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will attend to the various elements without parting from the realm of phenomena. What are those four? They are (1) understanding that phenomena lack intrinsic existence since sentient beings lack intrinsic existence, (2) understanding that sentient beings lack intrinsic existence since phenomena lack intrinsic existence, (3) being confident that buddha qualities lack intrinsic existence since sentient beings lack intrinsic existence, and (4) being free from doubts and hesitation about the fact that sentient beings lack intrinsic existence. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will attend to the various elements without parting from the realm of phenomena.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will not give up being of benefit even when they appear to be engaging in harmful actions. What are those four? They are (1) having their thoughts directed toward nirvāṇa,[F.261.b] (2) having their deeds directed toward saṃsāra, (3) having their minds directed toward the perfection of all buddha qualities, and (4) manifesting in the domains of the hearers and solitary buddhas. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will not give up being of benefit even when they appear to be engaging in harmful actions.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will possess wealth due to merit and be without wealth due to skillful means. What are those four? They are (1) manifesting as universal monarchs due to their merit, or as Śakra, or Brahmā, in order to tame beings that are attracted to greatness, (2) manifesting as destitute and lowly beings to tame ordinary beings, (3) giving away all of their possessions upon seeing beggars and thus becoming poor, and (4) manifesting an inexhaustible amount of wealth through their merit upon seeing someone very rich. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will possess wealth due to merit and be without wealth due to skillful means.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will enter the gate without attributes through the gateway of the syllable a. What are those four? They are (1) refining the understanding that ‘all formations are impermanent,’ (2) having reached the understanding that ‘all formations have always been suffering,’ (3) refining the view that ‘all phenomena are selfless,’ and (4) gaining the wisdom that ‘nirvāṇa has always been peaceful.’ Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will enter the gate without attributes through the gateway of the syllable a.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will actualize all buddha qualities. What are those four? They are (1) possessing the pure eye of insight,[F.262.a] (2) having obtained illumination through the Dharma eye, (3) having actualized the buddha eye, and (4) having been consecrated into all buddha qualities. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will actualize all buddha qualities.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will gain certainty about the Dharma and discern its distinctions. What are those four? They are (1) being unobscured with respect to the four correct knowledges, (2) understanding how to set forth the four truths, (3) understanding that the reliances are valid, and (4) knowing recollection free from distraction. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will gain certainty about the Dharma and discern its distinctions.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will act in accord with the world while remaining untainted by afflictions. What are those four? They are (1) directly perceiving mundane phenomena, (2) liberating beings from the world, (3) abandoning attachment and aggression, and (4) being naturally devoid of afflictions by virtue of their original purity and luminosity. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will act in accord with the world while remaining untainted by all its afflictions.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will possess the might of the Dharma that is invisible to others. What are those four? They are (1) the might of the mind, (2) the might of insight, (3) the might of wisdom, and (4) the might of methods. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will possess the might of the Dharma that is invisible to others.[F.262.b]
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will never be without meeting the thus-gone ones. What are those four? They are (1) encouraging sentient beings to meet the buddhas, (2) encouraging sentient beings to listen to the Dharma, (3) encouraging sentient beings to arouse the mind set on awakening, and (4) never parting from the absorption in which one calls to mind the buddhas. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will never be without meeting the thus-gone ones.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will remain composed and undisturbed. What are those four? They are (1) having actualized the vision of liberated wisdom through the noble supramundane insight, (2) knowing all phenomena as they truly are by thoroughly investigating the truth, (3) being skilled in severing all the fetters of habitual tendencies, and (4) not being disturbed by afflictions. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will remain composed and undisturbed.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be teachers without grasping at the teachings. What are those four? They are (1) providing excellent beneficial things to all beings, (2) ripening beings in a constant and undeceiving manner, (3) not being attached to their own happiness, and (4) pursuing wisdom for the sake of all beings—not for themselves alone. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be teachers without grasping at the teachings.[F.263.a]
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will be the teachers of all beings. What are those four? They are (1) accomplishing the benefit of others while disregarding their own benefit, (2) giving the joy of the Dharma to others while disregarding their own happiness, (3) untiringly teaching the Dharma just as they have heard it, and (4) sustaining themselves with the nourishment of the Dharma—not with material goods. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will be the teachers of all beings.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will turn the Dharma wheel of all the buddhas. What are those four? They are (1) the ability of perfect recall, (2) possessing uninterrupted eloquence, (3) having knowledge of all beings’ thoughts, and (4) leading them on the path to nirvāṇa while teaching the indestructible Dharma. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will turn the Dharma wheel of all the buddhas.
“Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess four qualities, they will obtain consecration into all buddha qualities. What are those four? They are (1) having completely transcended all forms of conduct, (2) having reached acceptance of the unborn nature of phenomena and never regressing from bodhisattva conduct, (3) intentionally displaying life, death, and rebirth while being marked by the seal of irreversibility, and (4) dedicating themselves to the seal of the thus-gone ones and being skilled in progressing from one bodhisattva level to the next after reaching emancipation on the ten bodhisattva levels. Noble son, if bodhisattvas possess those four qualities, they will obtain consecration into all buddha qualities.”
When the Blessed One had explained this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments,[F.263.b] this great trichiliocosm shook in six ways, a bright light pervaded the universe, and billions of gods living in the sky started to sing divine songs. They caused a rain of divine mandārava flowers to fall and exclaimed, “Oh! The unsurpassed and perfect awakening of the blessed buddhas that has been described in this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments was achieved countless billions of eons ago by the Blessed One!42 Blessed One, those sentient beings who hear this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments, develop interest upon hearing it, and then retain it, carry it, read it, comprehend it, and teach it to others without parting from the mind of awakening will not be endowed with trifling roots of virtue. Just as the Thus-Gone One, the worthy one, the perfect Buddha proclaimed the lion’s roar today, they will proclaim the lion’s roar within the worlds of gods, humans, and demigods. Blessed One, we are very fortunate to have heard this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments!”
When the Blessed One had explained this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishments, eighty-four thousand gods and humans gave rise to the mind set on unsurpassed and perfect awakening, and twelve thousand bodhisattvas reached acceptance of the unborn nature of phenomena.
Then, the bodhisattva great being Divyamauli asked the Blessed One, “Blessed One, what are the qualities that will be possessed by the bodhisattvas who retain a sūtra like this one after the Thus-Gone One’s passing,[F.264.a] and who teach it at length to others?”
“Noble son,” replied the Blessed One, “the bodhisattvas who retain such a sūtra after the Thus-Gone One’s passing, and who teach it in a vast way to others, will possess eight qualities. What are those eight? (1) Their intent with respect to perfect awakening will be definitive—they will possess a perfect attitude. (2) They will be devoid of anger toward any being—they will cultivate the practice of great love. (3) They will abide by the activity of ripening beings—they will abide by great compassion. (4) They will wish for the Dharma and exert themselves in its pursuit. (5) They will be insatiable in their pursuit of learning and their level of erudition will become as vast as an ocean. (6) They will uphold the sacred Dharma even at the cost of their bodies and lives. (7) They will gather the accumulation of merit and their roots of virtue will be firm. (8) They will be blessed by the power of the buddhas such that they become perfected in their aspirations, and, within the entourage, they will know no fear and they will defeat all demons and opponents. Noble son, the bodhisattvas who uphold such a sūtra after the Thus-Gone One’s passing, and who fully teach it to others, will be endowed with those eight qualities.”
Then, through the power of the Buddha, this great trichiliocosm shook in six ways, all the higher and lower regions, the black mountains, and all springs, lakes, ponds, and oceans disappeared, and this entire earth became flat like the palm of the hand.[F.264.b] Still, all the beings living in the water remained unharmed. Also, throughout this great trichiliocosm all the trees that had withered centuries before started to bloom and bear various fruits. These trees then bent in the direction of the Blessed One and paid homage to him. All of the other trees also started to bloom and bear various fruits, before bending in the direction of the Blessed One and paying homage to him. Bright, lovely, colorful, fragrant, and delightful lotuses the size of chariot wheels sprang up from the earth, and a dazzling light illuminated this great trichiliocosm. Without anyone being seen or anything being played, divine music and singing were heard from the sky. Colorful divine flowers that emanated the most delicious fragrances, which had never been experienced before, now appeared on the majestic Himavat mountains as well as on the majestic Mount Gandhamādana, and their sweet fragrances spread throughout this great trichiliocosm. A great rain of flowers then fell from the majestic Himavat mountains and from the majestic Mount Gandhamādana onto the retinue of the Blessed One, covering the earth up to their knees. Rains of various types of flowers fell from the blooming trees and the sounds of music and song resounded all around. A parasol made of all kinds of precious gems and measuring about a million leagues covered the sky. Pearl garlands and lattices formed by different types of small precious bells were hanging from that bejeweled parasol. The small bells rang out with the most delightful,[F.265.a] enthralling, and enrapturing sounds that pervade this great trichiliocosm.
At that moment, Venerable Śāriputra asked the Blessed One, “Blessed One, whose coming is augured by these delightful and pleasurable signs that manifest on such a vast scale and adorn this great trichiliocosm so richly?”
“Śāriputra,” replied the Blessed One, “these are the signs of the arrival of Druma, the king of the kinnaras. He is coming from Mount Gandhamādana with a retinue of many thousands of kinnaras, a retinue of many thousands of gandharvas, and a retinue of many thousands of gods.”
As soon as the Blessed One had said those words, the kinnara king Druma arrived at the place where the Blessed One was residing. He was accompanied by eighty-four thousand musicians and singers and surrounded by a retinue of several hundred thousand. From the sky above a stream of flowers rained down. When he arrived, he prostrated with his retinue at the feet of the Blessed One, circumambulated him three times, and sat in front of him. In the presence of the Blessed One and accompanied by the eighty-four thousand musicians, the kinnara king Druma then began to play his lute. Its body was made of beryl and it had trim and veneer made of gold from the Jambū River.43 It was adorned with gold, jewels, and many precious substances, and purified through the ripening of his previous actions. As soon as the kinnara king Druma started to play, the tunes of his lute resounded throughout this great trichiliocosm. The tunes from his lute outclassed all the divine music from the strings and songs of the gods of the desire realm, to the point that these could no longer be heard.[F.265.b] Then, impelled by the tunes of that lute, the gods of the desire realm put down their divine instruments and came to the place where the Blessed One was residing. As soon as the kinnara king Druma started to play his lute, all the trees, and the majestic mountains Sumeru, Himavat, Gandhamādana, Mucilinda, and Mahāmucilinda, the black mountains, and all blades of grass, branches, medicinal plants, and forests of this great trichiliocosm started to vibrate, shudder, and reel; wobble, rock, and sway; and quiver, tremble, and quake. Just as someone intoxicated by liquor staggers, reels, and wobbles, all those trees and mountains started to bend, bow, and twist.[B2]
With the exception of the bodhisattvas who had reached the level of irreversibility, as soon as the kinnara king Druma started to play his beryl lute, all those who had gathered in the assembly surrounding the Blessed One—the dispassionate monks, nuns, male lay practitioners, and female lay practitioners, as well as the gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, demigods, garuḍas, kinnaras, and mahoragas, Śakra, Brahmā, the protectors of the world, humans, nonhumans, worthy ones absorbed in the eight liberations, and the entire retinue—became overwhelmed upon hearing the tunes emitted by that lute. They stood up and started to shake, shiver, and tremble; they bent, bowed, and twisted; and they danced, swayed, and whirled. Even all the great hearers could not remain in their seats. They trembled, shook, acted wildly,[F.266.a] and danced around like small children.
The bodhisattva Divyamauli said to all those great hearers, “Venerable ones, great hearers, you are free from afflictions, you are absorbed in the eight liberations, and you have seen the four truths. Why can you no longer control your bodies? Venerable ones, you are dancing around like small children!”
“Noble son,” replied the great hearers, “as the kinnara king Druma picked up his lute and started playing it, the music and songs made it impossible for us to remain in our seats; we began to shake, shiver, and tremble, and we were unable to control our minds.”
The bodhisattva Divyamauli then said to the elder Mahākāśyapa, “Venerable Mahākāśyapa, you have reached old age and are frail, you are content and have few desires, you uphold the ascetic practices, and you are the focus of worship for the world with its gods, humans, and demigods. Why can you no longer control your body? You are an elder, but you dance around like a small child!”
“Noble son,” said the elder Mahākāśyapa, “when a violent wind is blowing during a hurricane, all the plants, forests, and mountains become powerless and weak; they cannot remain in place and quiver, tremble, shake, and wobble against their will. Noble son, in the same way, upon hearing the tunes emitted by the lute of the kinnara king Druma, we became unable to control ourselves, just like great mountains shaken by a violent hurricane. Why is that so? Because such are the extraordinary qualities of the aspiration, merit, and wisdom of this sublime being.[F.266.b] They outclass the merit, wisdom, and magnificence of the hearers.”
The bodhisattva Divyamauli continued, “Venerable Mahākāśyapa, the tunes emitted by this lute are unable to affect and shake the splendor, the magnificence, and the power of the bodhisattvas who have reached the level of irreversibility. Therefore, Venerable Mahākāśyapa, why would one not give rise to the mind set on unsurpassed and perfect awakening? Notice how the power and magnificence of those who possess limited wisdom is outclassed by the tunes of that lute, and how the power and magnificence of the followers of the Great Vehicle cannot be outclassed.”
At that moment, when the kinnara king Druma played his lute, through the power of the Buddha and the blessings of his previous aspirations, these verses manifested from his lute and the other eighty-four thousand instruments:
As these verses were manifested, their elucidations caused one hundred thousand bodhisattvas to reach acceptance of the unborn nature of phenomena.
Then, the bodhisattva Divyamauli asked the Blessed One, “Blessed One, where do these verses come from?”
“Noble son,” replied the Blessed One, “Ask the kinnara king Druma. He will answer your question.”
The bodhisattva Divyamauli then asked the kinnara king Druma, “Lord of the kinnaras, where did these manifested verses appear from?”
The kinnara king Druma replied, “They come from where the words pronounced by all beings come from.”
“Lord of the kinnaras, where do the words pronounced by all beings come from?”
“Noble son, the words pronounced by all beings come from space.”
The Sanskrit name Druma is rendered in Tibetan as sdong po in D and other Kangyurs of predominantly Tshalpa lineage. Throughout the text, the predominantly Themphangma Kangyurs T, S, F, and L instead read ljon pa. Harrison 1992, p. 3, no. 8.
For more on the theme of sexual transformation in Mahāyāna sūtras, as well as famous counterexamples, such as the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa sūtra, in which Śāriputra is transformed into a woman, see Jan Nattier, “Gender and Enlightenment: Sexual Transformation in Mahāyāna Sūtras” (unpublished manuscript, University of Indiana, 2002). For the passage in the Vimalakīrtinirdeśasūtra, see Thurman 2017, 6.32 et seq..
The Caryāmelāpakapradīpa is a systematic presentation of the esoteric practices associated with the Guhyasamājatantra. For an English translation of that text, see Wedemeyer 2007. In his book, Wedemeyer demonstrates that the author of this text lived during the ninth century
Interestingly, the colophon of the Phukdrak MS edition says that the text was translated, revised, updated in the light of new terminology (skad gsar bcad kyis kyang bcos), and finalized by two other great translators of the revision period, Śīlendrabodhi and Yeshé Dé. See Harrison 1992, p. xliv.
Apart from the critical edition of the sūtra, Harrison’s monograph also includes a brief introduction to the sūtra as well as a longer discussion of the textual transmission of the Kangyur that likewise proved to be very helpful for our work. His work also contains two appendices, one listing all the single reading variants between the nine witnesses, and the other presenting a transcription of the three citations from this sūtra that appear in the Caryāmelāpakapradīpa.
For the stemma codicum proposed by Harrison, see 1992, p. xxxvi. Although it is known to include readings from both transmission lines, the Narthang edition seems to exclusively follow the texts of the Tshalpa line in this case.
However, the texts of recension A still retain terms that were not revised, and the texts from recension B did not completely escape revision either.
Translated based on S, L, T, and F: gnas te. Harrison 1992, p. 5, no. 15. D: gnas par brtson pa.
Translated based on S: yongs su mya ngan las ’da’ ba’i bar du gtan du mdza’ ba. Harrison 1992, p. 6, no. 15. D: yongs su mya ngan las ’da’ ba’i bshes gnyen byed pa.
S, T, and F: sangs rgyas thams cad kyi byin gyi rlabs kyis shin tu byin gyis brlabs pa (“they were empowered by the blessings of all the buddhas”). Harrison 1992, p. 7, no. 6.
S, L, T, and F add: rnam par grol ba/ smon lam shin tu btab pa (“they were completely liberated and formed great aspirations”). Harrison 1992, p. 8, no. 10.
S, L, T, and F: sangs rgyas kyi ye shes la nye bar gyur pa (“they were close to the awakened wisdom”). Harrison 1992, p. 9, no. 15.
The number of names of bodhisattva great beings, and their sequence, vary in the different editions (see Harrison 1992, pp. 10–12).
Translated based on S, L, T, and F: sems kyi spyod. Harrison 1992, p. 14, no. 9. D: sems dang spyod.
S, L, T, and F read: thar pa’i lam nges (“you have ascertained the path of liberation”). Harrison 1992, p. 16, no 6.
S reads: kye ma bcom ldan ’das kyis bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pa’i byang chub bskal pa bye ba khrag khrig brgya stong grangs med par bsgrubs pa gang lags pa de bcom ldan ’das kyis bzhi pa bsgrub pa’i chos kyi rnam grangs ’di bsnyad cing bshad de rab tu bstan to/ (“Oh! The Blessed One has revealed and explained, through this Dharma teaching on fourfold accomplishment, the unsurpassed and perfect awakening that he achieved countless billions of eons ago!”). Harrison 1992, p. 45.
S, L, and T read: grol ba’i don du (“for the sake of liberation”). Harrison 1992, p. 64, no 5.
S and F read: de dag thams cad brdzun pa ya ma brla. L and T read: de dag thams cad brdzun pa ya ma rla (“these are all meaningless falsities”). Harrison 1992, p. 65, no 6.
Translated based on S, L, T, and F: ye shes kyi che ba nyid du ’gyur bar bya ba’i phyir. Harrison 1992, p. 81, no. 3. D: chos kyi bdag nyid pas.
Translated based on S, L, T, and F. Harrison 1992, p. 81, no. 5. D: ’chos pa med pa’i g.yo dang sgyu med pa’i sems rin po che.
Translated based on S, L, and T. Harrison 1992, p. 81, no. 6. D: dam pa’i chos yun ring du gnas pas chos la dga’ ba’i sems rin po che.
S, L, T, and F read: lus dang sems dben pa spong zhing dben pa’i sems rin po che (“physical and mental isolation, the precious attitude of abandonment and isolation”). Harrison 1992, p. 82, no 2.
S, L, and T read: rnam par rig byed ma yin pa’i sgo’i shes rab (“insight which is the gateway to the imperceptible”). Harrison 1992, p. 89, no 2.
Translated based on S, L, T, and F: mu tig gi rgyan ’phreng gi mu tig gi ’bru de thams cad las. Harrison 1992, p. 101, no. 4. D: me tog gi do shal ’phyang ba re re las.
Here and throughout the following passage, S, L, T, and F read: gdugs tshod pha ba (“invited for lunch”) instead of D: dus bskul ba. Harrison 1992, pp. 110–117.
Translated based on S, F, L, and T: ma ’khrugs ma rnyog dri ma tha ba rab spangs pa. Harrison 1992, p. 111, no. 7. D: ’jo dang rnyog pa rnams dang dri ma tha spangs pa.
Translated based on S, F, L, and T: zhe ’gras med pa’i mig. Harrison 1992, p. 124, no. 5. D: dga’ ba’i mig.
Translated based on S, F, T, and L: bslab pa legs par rdzogs par yang dag par ’dzin pa’i tshul khrims. Harrison 1992, p. 126, no. 10. D: bslab pa rdzogs pa med pa yang dag par ’dzin pa’i tshul khrims.
Translated based on S, F, T, and L: sems can thams cad la rab tu gdung ba med pa’i phyir brtson ’grus rtsom pa. Harrison 1992, p. 131, no. 9. D: sems can thams cad la rab tu gding bar byed pa’i phyir brtson ’grus rtsom pa.
Translated based on S, T, and L: rnga bo che dang/ mkhar rnga dang/ gling bu dang/ dung. Harrison 1992, p. 143, no. 13–18. D: rnga dang/ rnga mri dang ga dang rnga pa na ba dang dung.
Translated based on J, N, and K: bsam snyoms. Harrison 1992, p. 158, no. 10. D: btang snyoms.
This phrase repeats at the opening and closing of each list in S, L, T, and F. Harrison 1992, pp. 185–193.
Translated based on S, L, T, and F: gsal ba. Harrison 1992, p. 189, no. 8. D: bstsal ba med pa.
Tentative translation. Tib. rang byung ba ni mtshan mchog ma yin yang/ sems kyi chos kyis gzugs kyis rab tu phye/ sems dang yid ni mtshungs pa[r] dben par gyur/ rgyal ba thams cad chos mtshungs nyid phyir mnyam.
Tentative translation. Tibetan: zad par bya phyir zad pa shes mi nus/ mi zad pa ni zad pas zad mi ’gyur.
All Tibetan witnesses consulted read “four thousand,” but we have translated “forty thousand” as per the number given just above.
We have here an explicit reference to another Mahāyāna sūtra, the Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodanāsūtra.
Translated based on S, L, T, and F: mi ’dod pa. Harrison 1992, p. 259, no. 15. D: mi dbang ba.
Tentative translation. Tib. rab tu dben pa rnam par bsgrub par nye bar gnas pa’i mtshan nyid ma lags pa’i chos rnams la.
Tadyathā means something like, “it as is follows.” The phrase is not actually part of the mantra, but the Tibetan translators consistently represented it as though it is.
Paul Harrison and W. South Coblin (1993) have published an article that focuses on the Chinese transcription of this dhāraṇī. Here, we have rendered the version found in the Degé edition and emended it based on the reconstructed Sanskrit version found in this study.
Translation based on S, L, and F: ban dhe dpal brtsegs rak+Shi ta. Harrison 1992, p. 303, no. 4–5. D: dpal brtsegs.
One of the three gateways to liberation.
One of the three gateways to liberation.
In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.
In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.
Name of a bodhisattva.
The fivefold basic grouping of the components out of which the world and the personal self are formed.
King of Magadha and son of the king Bimbisāra. While he was a prince, he became friends with Devadatta, who convinced him to have his father killed and become the king instead. After his father’s death, he became tormented with guilt and regret, converted to Buddhism, and supported the compilation of the Buddha’s teachings during the First Council.
Name of a bodhisattva.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
Four types of mindfulness that regard the body, feelings, the mind, and dharmas.
Name of a bodhisattva.
An optional set of thirteen practices that monastics can adopt in order to cultivate greater detachment. They consist of (1) wearing patched robes made from discarded cloth rather than from cloth donated by laypeople; (2) wearing only three robes; (3) going for alms; (4) not omitting any house while on the alms round, rather than begging only at those houses known to provide good food; (5) eating only what can be eaten in one sitting; (6) eating only food received in the alms bowl, rather than more elaborate meals presented to the Saṅgha; (7) refusing more food after indicating one has eaten enough; (8) dwelling in the forest; (9) dwelling at the root of a tree; (10) dwelling in the open air, using only a tent made from one’s robes as shelter; (11) dwelling in a charnel ground; (12) being satisfied with whatever dwelling one has; and (13) sleeping in a sitting position without ever lying down.
A state of one-pointed mental equilibrium.
One of the “eight close sons of the Buddha,” he is also known as the bodhisattva who embodies compassion. In certain tantras, he is also the lord of the three families, where he embodies the compassion of the buddhas. In Tibet, he attained great significance as a special protector of Tibet, and in China, in female form, as Guanyin, the most important bodhisattva in all of East Asia.
Determination, discernment, diligence, and concentration.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).
Name of a bodhisattva.
Mindfulness, discrimination, diligence, joy, pliability, absorption, and equanimity.
Name of the universe where the Buddha Guṇarājaprabhāsa will appear in the future.
In Buddhist usage, a general term for non-Buddhist religious mendicants, paired with parivrājaka in stock lists of followers of heretical movements.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
One of the buddhas of the past.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva. Main interlocutor of the king of the kinnaras in the sūtra The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma.
King of the kinnaras. See the introduction i.1.
His name has been translated into Tibetan both as “sdong po” and “ljon pa.”
A series of progressively more subtle states of meditative realization or attainment. There are several presentations of these found in the canonical literature. One of the most common is as follows: (1) One observes form while the mind dwells at the level of the form realm. (2) One observes forms externally while discerning formlessness internally. (3) One dwells in the direct experience of the body’s pleasant aspect. (4) One dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite space by transcending all conceptions of matter, resistance, and diversity. (5) Transcending the sphere of infinite space, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite consciousness. (6) Transcending the sphere of infinite consciousness, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of nothingness. (7) Transcending the sphere of nothingness, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception. (8) Transcending the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception, one dwells in the realization of the cessation of conception and feeling.
One way of describing experience and the world in terms of eighteen elements (eye and form, ear and sound, nose and odor, tongue and taste, body and touch, mind and mental objects, to which the six consciousnesses are added).
Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.
Thirty-seven practices that lead the practitioner to the awakened state: the four applications of mindfulness, the four authentic eliminations, the four bases of supernatural power, the five masteries, the five powers, the eightfold path, and the seven branches of awakening.
Four unique types of confidence that a buddha possesses, which are enumerated in a variety of ways.
Name of a bodhisattva.
The four levels of meditative absorption of the beings of the form realms.
Genuine discrimination with respect to meaning, phenomena, language, and eloquence.
These are typically listed as follows: (1) the meditative absorption of the sense field of infinite space, (2) the meditative absorption of the sense field of infinite consciousness, (3) the meditative absorption of the sense field of nothing-at-all, and (4) the meditative absorption of neither perception nor non-perception.
Name of a mountain.
A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”
In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.
Family name of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Name of the kinnara king Druma when he awakens in the future, as prophesied by the Buddha.
Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy, (Toh 199).
One of the six heavens of the desire realm.
’phags pa mi ’am ci’i rgyal po sdong pos zhus pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Toh 157, Degé Kangyur vol. 58 (dkon brtsegs, pha), folios 254a.1–319a.7.
’phags pa mi ’am ci’i rgyal po sdong pos zhus pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–2009, vol. 58, pp. 664–816.
Bendall, Cecil, ed. “Subhāṣitasaṃgraha: An Anthology of Extracts from Buddhist Works Compiled by an Unknown Author, to Illustrate the Doctrines of Scholastic and Mystic (Tantrik) Buddhism.” Le muséon, n.s., 4 (1903): 375–402; and 5 (1904): 5–46, 245–274.
Harrison, Paul M. Druma-kinnara-rāja-paripṛcchā-sūtra: a critical edition of the Tibetan text (recension A) based on eight editions of the Kanjur and the Dunhuang manuscript fragment. Studia philologica Buddhica Monograph series 7. Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1992.
Harrison, Paul M. “Philology in the Field: Some Comments on Selected mDo mang Texts in the Tabo Collection.” In C.A. Scherrer-Schaub and Ernst Steinkellner, eds., Tabo Studies II: Manuscripts, Texts, Inscriptions, and the Arts (Serie Orientale Roma LXXXVII) (Rome: Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 1999), pp. 37–54.
Harrison, Paul M. and Coblin W. South. “The Oldest Buddhist Incantation in Chinese? A Preliminary Study of the Chinese Transcriptions of the Mantra in the Druma-kinnara-rāja-paripṛcchā-sūtra.” In Jan Nattier and John McRae, eds., Collection of Essays 1993: Buddhism Across Boundaries—Chinese Buddhism and the Western Regions (Sanchung: Fo Guang Shan Foundation for Buddhist Culture Education, 1999), pp. 137–186. Republished 2012 in John R. McRae & Jan Nattier, eds., Buddhism Across Boundaries: The Interplay of Indian, Chinese, and Central Asian Source Materials (Sino-Platonic Papers 222, March 2012), pp. 63–85.
Harrison, Paul M. and Helmut Eimer. “Kanjur and Tanjur Sigla: A Proposal for Standardization.” In Transmission of the Tibetan Canon: Papers Presented at a Panel of the 7th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Graz 1995, xi–xiv. Graz: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1997.
Nattier, Jan. “Gender and Enlightenment: Sexual Transformation in Mahāyāna Sūtras.” Unpublished manuscript, University of Indiana, 2002.
Pathak, S. Kumar. The Indian Nītiśāstras in Tibet. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1974.
Roberts, Peter (tr., 2018a). The White Lotus of the Good Dharma. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2018.
Roberts, Peter (tr., 2018b). The King of Samādhis Sūtra. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2018.
Thurman, Robert F. (tr.). The Teaching of Vimalakīrti. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2017.
Wedemeyer, Christian K. Āryadeva’s Lamp that Integrates the Practices (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa): The Gradual Path of Vajrayāna Buddhism According to the Esoteric Community Noble Tradition. New York: American Institute of Buddhist Studies at Columbia University, 2007.
C Choné Kangyur
D Degé Kangyur
F Phukdrak MS Kangyur
H Lhasa Kangyur
K Peking Kangxi Kangyur
L London (Shelkar) MS Kangyur
N Narthang Kangyur
S Stok Palace MS Kangyur
T Tokyo MS Kangyur
Y Peking Yongle Kangyur
