The Great Cloud features a long dialogue between the Buddha Śākyamuni and a bodhisattva named Great Cloud Essence, who are periodically joined by various additional interlocutors from the vast audience of human and divine beings who have assembled to hear the Buddha’s teaching. The topics of their conversation are diverse and wide-ranging, but a central theme is the vast conduct of bodhisattvas, which is illustrated through the enumeration of the various meditative states and liberative techniques that bodhisattvas must master in order to minister to all sentient beings. This is followed by a conversation with the brahmin Kauṇḍinya concerning the Buddha’s cousin Devadatta, who is revealed to be a bodhisattva displaying the highest level of skillful means. Kauṇḍinya then inquires about the possibility of obtaining a relic from the Buddha, and another member of the audience responds with an explanation of how truly rare it is for a buddha relic to appear within the world. Finally, the discourse ends with the Buddha delivering a series of detailed prophecies describing the principal interlocutor’s future attainment of buddhahood, and he further explains the benefits and powers that can be obtained through the practice of this sūtra itself.
This translation was produced by Joshua Capitanio for the Mahamegha Translation Team. The translator is grateful to Christopher Jones (University of Cambridge) and Susan Roach for offering several helpful suggestions.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of an anonymous donor, who would like to dedicate it in memory of Lin, Zai-He and Lin Lee, Wan-Zhi.
The Great Cloud is an important Mahāyāna sūtra, known particularly as one source of the idea that a tathāgata is permanent and does not really pass into parinirvāṇa, but strategically displays an illusory body. To exemplify religious attainment for sentient beings, this emanated body seems to take birth, strive for awakening, and eventually pass into parinirvāṇa.1 In this sūtra this view is not merely implied or stated without comment, as it is in many sūtras, but is set out along with the claim that orthodox Buddhist doctrines of impermanence and selflessness are merely provisional teachings imparted by the Buddha for the sake of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas who were too trepidatious and spiritually immature to accept the realities of permanence and true selfhood.
These themes are shared with the famous Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra, which exerted a tremendous influence on doctrinal developments in Chinese and East Asian Buddhism in the fifth and sixth centuries. Indeed, Chinese bibliographers classified The Great Cloud with a handful of other sūtras that they considered to be related to the Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra, arguably the earliest extant work on buddha nature (tathāgatagarbha).2 Several Tibetan authors, too, beginning in the fourteenth century with Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen, listed the sūtra among those related to buddha nature or those of definitive meaning.3
The Great Cloud is also thematically related to The Golden Light (Suvarṇaprabhāsa, Toh 555–557),4 and a dialogue that occurs in chapter 37 between the brahmin Kauṇḍinya and a Licchavi youth is also found in the various Tibetan and Chinese recensions of that discourse.5
The Great Cloud opens with a long introduction that enumerates the various assemblies of human and nonhuman beings who were in attendance when the discourse was spoken. This section, which takes up the entirety of the first fascicle and continues into the second fascicle, is one of the longest and most detailed introductions to be found in any Mahāyāna sūtra. The scripture goes on to introduce the primary interlocutor, a bodhisattva named Great Cloud Essence, who emerges from the assembly to ask the Buddha a long series of questions on a variety of topics related to the conduct of bodhisattvas. The Buddha praises the bodhisattva’s questions and responds by introducing The Great Cloud, which is described as the “steadfast treasury of the sacred Dharma.” Great Cloud Essence asks for more teachings on this topic, and the Buddha grants his request, which prompts a great display of miraculous signs, eliciting praise for the Buddha’s qualities from the entire assembly.
In the second chapter, the Buddha explains that The Great Cloud contains four hundred “samādhi gateways” that all bodhisattvas should master, and he gives an extensive explanation of the first samādhi and its qualities. These qualities correspond to the questions asked by Great Cloud Essence in the first chapter. The Buddha then proceeds to enumerate the remaining samādhis and repeats all the qualities enumerated for the first samādhi, explaining that they apply likewise to all the other samādhi gateways.
These two long chapters are followed by a series of short sections. Chapters 3 through 36 each follow the same general structure: Great Cloud Essence asks the Bhagavān to enumerate a series of techniques or “gateways”—dhāraṇī gateways, liberation gateways, Dharma gateways, etc.—related to a single theme. The Buddha then lists those gateways, and a member of the audience steps forth, makes offerings, and offers a short praise of the Buddha’s teachings.
In the penultimate chapter, chapter 37, Great Cloud Essence asks again about the four hundred samādhi gateways, and the Buddha responds with a long discussion of the various practices to be performed by bodhisattvas who cultivate the teachings of The Great Cloud. An important theme of this section is that bodhisattvas must engage harmoniously with the world. As in The Teaching of Vimalakīrti,6 the Buddha recommends that bodhisattvas gather disciples by using skillful means to give the appearance of engaging in all manner of activities that might be considered contrary to the Dharma, such as having a family, accumulating wealth, and associating with non-Buddhists and people of questionable ethics.
Following this discussion, we are introduced to another interlocutor, the brahmin Kauṇḍinya, who steps forth to question the Buddha specifically about the Buddha’s cousin Devadatta. Kauṇḍinya condemns the conduct of Devadatta and the so-called “group of six monks,” who are always finding ways to break the rules of pure conduct set forth by the Buddha. However, Great Cloud Essence, speaking on behalf of the Buddha, chides Kauṇḍinya for his views and explains that Devadatta and the group of six are really bodhisattvas displaying skillful means. Following this, Kauṇḍinya requests the Buddha to grant him the boon of a relic that he can venerate. A Licchavi youth steps forward from the audience and explains to Kauṇḍinya just how rare it is for a buddha relic to appear in the world. Then, a goddess named Stainless Light steps forth and asks the Buddha about the brahmin and the Licchavi. The Buddha proceeds to explain that these two beings have been karmically connected for many eons, describe their former activities, and give a prophecy of their future attainment of buddhahood. The Buddha then gives further prophecies for these two individuals and for the goddess Stainless Light and the bodhisattva Great Cloud Essence. Most notably, Kauṇḍinya is to be reborn as the Mauryan king Aśoka.
The final chapter, chapter 38, continues this theme of prophecies, as a host of gods questions the Buddha about the future fate of this discourse. The Buddha explains that in the future there will be many people who will question the authenticity and legitimacy of this discourse and its teachings. However, there will arise one monk who will defend the sūtra and spread its teachings, and due to his dedication, the teachings will not disappear. The Buddha goes on to describe the merits that will come from practicing the teachings of this discourse. A series of marvels then occurs, including the appearance of a great light from the western region, and, when questioned by Great Cloud Essence, the Buddha describes all the altruistic magical acts that bodhisattvas who cultivate these teachings will display to engage with ordinary beings in accordance with their individual dispositions and guide them to take up the Buddhist teachings. Finally, the Buddha smiles and gives a prophecy for the goddess Stainless Light, explaining that she will be born as a princess who will rule her kingdom as a queen who will carry out many awakened activities before being reborn in the pure land of the buddha Amitābha, where she will finally attain buddhahood. In China, this prophecy came to be connected to the reign of Empress Wu in the seventh and early eighth centuries.7
The Great Cloud is classified within the “General Sūtra” section of the Tibetan Kangyur. The Tibetan translation is attributed to the Indian translator Surendrabodhi and the Tibetan translator and editor Yeshe Dé. The Great Cloud is listed in the ninth-century Denkarma catalog, in which it is included among the “Various Great Vehicle Sūtras.”8 It is also recorded in the ninth-century Phangthangma catalog, in the category of “Great Sūtras.”9
The Dégé Kangyur contains three additional sūtras (Toh 233–235) that are all related somehow through content and intertextual reference to The Great Cloud (Toh 232) that we have translated here. These three texts all present themselves as individual chapters that belong to The Great Cloud. This may perhaps be a reference to Toh 232, but the exact relationship and history of the four texts nevertheless remains unclear.
Toh 233 presents itself as the “thirty-seventh chapter” of The Great Cloud, even though Toh 232 as contained in the Dégé Kangyur already contains a chapter 37 that is altogether different. While Toh 233 contains thematic elements that connect it to Toh 232, such as the presence of the bodhisattva Great Cloud Essence and references to the Dharma gateways contained within The Great Cloud, it largely consists of original material.
Toh 234 is entitled The Great Cloud Chapter on the Array of Winds, The Essence of All Nāgas and also presents itself as (an unnumbered) chapter of The Great Cloud. This text is quite close in content to Toh 235 and both texts appear to have been intended largely for ritual and recitation purposes to achieve timely and appropriate rains. Toh 235 is simply titled The Great Cloud, but in the colophon a more specific title is given, as From “The Great Cloud,” the Sixty-Fourth Chapter “The Array of Winds That Send Down Rainfall” Together With its Ritual Manual. Despite this supplementary text being presented as the “sixty-fourth chapter” of The Great Cloud, Toh 232 itself in all its extant versions only contains thirty-eight chapters. Further research is therefore required to establish the relationship and shared history of these four interrelated texts.
This scripture was also translated into Chinese (Taishō 387) in the early fifth century by Dharmakṣema (385–433), who also translated the Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra. The title of the Chinese translation is given as The Great Vaipulya Discourse on Nonconceptuality 大方等無想經, but the text refers to itself internally as The Great Cloud 大雲經. Scholars have debated whether all or part of the Tibetan translation of this sūtra was made on the basis of a later version of the Chinese translation.10 The Chinese and Tibetan versions follow the same overall structure and generally contain the same content, but there are several discrepancies, and the Tibetan version is much more detailed in certain sections, particularly in the opening description of the audience that was present when the discourse was spoken. The fact that there is an extant Sanskrit manuscript of this sūtra, which preserves about 80% of the text, only came to our attention after completing the translation.11 At present, this manuscript remains inaccessible to us. The English translation presented here was based primarily on the Tibetan Degé edition, in consultation with the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace manuscript edition. Dharmakṣema’s Chinese translation was also consulted throughout.
[F.113.a][B1]Homage to all buddhas, bodhisattvas, exalted śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Bhagavān was residing on Vulture Peak in Rājagṛha with an assembly of nine million eight hundred thousand bhikṣus including Mahākāśyapa. All of them were worthy ones who had exhausted their defilements, had attained mastery, and were free from afflictions. They were omniscient ones, great elephants, their minds perfectly liberated, their wisdom perfectly liberated, who had accomplished their tasks and completed their work. They had cast off their burdens and fulfilled their aims. Their minds had been emancipated through correct cognition, and they had thoroughly exhausted all the fetters binding them to existence. They possessed very pure discipline and had obtained supreme perfection in mastering all mental states. They were proficient in the superknowledges. Together, they were all absorbed in meditation on the eight liberations.
After noon, the elder Mahākāśyapa and the other nine million eight hundred thousand bhikṣus set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also six million five hundred thousand bhikṣuṇīs, including Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī and others. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.[F.113.b]
At that time, there were also six million eight hundred thousand bodhisattvas, great lords, including Great Cloud Essence and others. These included the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Light Protector, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Lightning Flash, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Thunderclap, Great Cloud Protector of Diligence, Great Cloud Producer of Joy, Great Cloud Utter Joy, Great Cloud Heap, Great Cloud Vajra Glory, Great Cloud Proclaimer of Certainty, Great Cloud Fame, Great Cloud Lightning Net, Great Cloud Lightning Offering, Great Cloud King of Skillful Analysis, Great Cloud Playful Gait, Great Cloud King of the Lion’s Roar, Great Cloud Vast Intellect, Great Cloud Sustained by Diligence, Great Cloud King of the Seeing Eye, Great Cloud King of Magical Manifestation, Great Cloud Infinitely Renowned as Exalted, Great Cloud Correct View, Great Cloud Lord of Non-Buddhists, Great Cloud Field of Merit, Great Cloud Attainment of Coolness, Great Cloud Solar Essence, Great Cloud Lunar Brilliance, Great Cloud Priceless Beryl, Great Cloud Ever Watchful, Great Cloud Delighting in the Eternal Nature, Great Cloud Ocean of Intelligence, Great Cloud Victorious Army, Great Cloud Vast Light, Great Cloud Victorious Nāga Offering, Great Cloud Glory of Living Joyously, Great Cloud Captain’s Eye, Great Cloud Heaped Crowns,[F.114.a] Great Cloud Teacher, Great Cloud Seed Protector, Great Cloud Victorious White Lotus, Great Cloud Fire-Like Lotus of Gnosis, Great Cloud Fragrance of Perfume-Infused Utpala Flower, Great Cloud Tiger, Great Cloud Acting as a Guide, Great Cloud Fearless Roar, Great Cloud Coolness of Tamala Leaves, Great Cloud Bathed in Precious Sandalwood, Great Cloud Excellence, Great Cloud Skilled in Marvels, Great Cloud Joyful Child without Craving, Great Cloud Most Skilled in Poetry, Great Cloud Entering into the Subtle Essence, Great Cloud Lush Face of the White Lotus of the Supreme Dharma, Great Cloud Realization of the Continuity of the Excellent Dharma, Great Cloud Bliss of Renown, Great Cloud Glorious Golden Mountain King, Great Cloud Bestowing All Medicines, Great Cloud Medicine King, Great Cloud Great Body, Great Cloud Fully Exalted within Space, Great Cloud Thundering, Great Cloud Dispelling Stains, Great Cloud Glorious Lotus Lamp, Great Cloud Unmixed Conception That Does Not Apprehend Resounding, Great Cloud Dispelling Darkness, and Great Cloud Dispelling Hail.
After noon these bodhisattvas, numbering six million eight hundred thousand, set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With joined palms, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were five million eight hundred thousand Licchavi youths, including Lion Lamp and others.[F.114.b] They included the Licchavi youth Dharma Offering, the Licchavi youth Nāga Head, the Licchavi youth Dharma Teachings, the Licchavi youth Indra’s Offering, the Licchavi youth Indra’s Standard, the Licchavi youth Light of Indra’s Banner, the Licchavi youth Intelligence Resounding as a Lion’s Roar, the Licchavi youth Precious Voice, the Licchavi youth Pleasant Glory, the Licchavi youth Nāga Glory, the Licchavi youth Vajra Garland, the Licchavi youth Buddha’s Servant, the Licchavi youth Conqueror’s Servant, the Licchavi youth Conqueror’s Moon, the Licchavi youth Great Arms, the Licchavi youth Great Glory, the Licchavi youth Ganges Offering, the Licchavi youth Essence of Gentle Glory, the Licchavi youth Strength of Nāga Joy, the Licchavi youth Nāga Protector, the Licchavi youth Dharma Protector, the Licchavi youth Luminous Renown, the Licchavi youth Sky Treasury, the Licchavi youth Ganges Protector, the Licchavi youth Adorned with Rākṣasa Earrings, the Licchavi youth Lightning Garland, the Licchavi youth Extraordinary Joy, the Licchavi youth Extraordinary Family, the Licchavi youth Stainless Light Renown, the Licchavi youth Kṛṣṇa’s Offering, the Licchavi youth Earth Lord, the Licchavi youth Earth Garland, and the Licchavi youth Unparalleled Vajra Servant.
These Licchavi youths, numbering five million eight hundred thousand, had all completely set out toward the attainment of unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening, their minds utterly enjoying the Great Vehicle.[F.115.a] After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were four million four hundred thousand devaputras such as Gandharva King Delightful Appearance and others. They were the devaputra Gandharva King Delightful Appearance, the devaputra Renowned for Joyous Faith, the devaputra Moon Crested, the devaputra Sun Colored, the devaputra Earring Adorned, the devaputra King of Pleasant Music, the devaputra Great Glory, the devaputra Engaging in Profound Conduct, the devaputra Great Black One, the devaputra Courageous Intellect, the devaputra Stainless Space-Like Eyes, the devaputra Glory of Complete Dedication to Joy, the devaputra Joy Garland King, the devaputra Luminous Renown of Joy, the devaputra Joyful Face, the devaputra Mind Enchanting, the devaputra Beryl Light, the devaputra Appearance of Beryl-Like Light, the devaputra Enjoys the Stars, the devaputra Half-Moon Forehead, the devaputra Profound Definitive Proclamation, the devaputra Complete Defeat of Affliction, the devaputra Joy of Indra, the devaputra Charming Youth, the devaputra Māndārava Heap, the devaputra Holding a Wish-Fulfilling Vine by the Head, the devaputra Intellect That Removes All Locks, and the devaputra Holder of Excellent Dharma.
These devaputras, numbering four million four hundred thousand, were all filled with devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle. They took joy only in protecting the excellent Dharma, in spreading the excellent Dharma,[F.115.b] and in maintaining all the various samādhis. In order to benefit and please all sentient beings, they set forth after noon from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were two million eight hundred thousand nāga kings, including the nāga king Padma, the nāga king Takṣaka, the nāga king Sāgara, the nāga king Anavatapta, the nāga king Strong Moving, the nāga king Son of Infinitely Vast Wealth, the nāga king Abode of Prosperity, the nāga king Child’s Play, the nāga king Sharpest Teeth, the nāga king Many Households, the nāga king Clear-Limbed Deer Eyes, the nāga king Bṛhaspati’s Science of Grammar, the nāga king Golden Face, the nāga king Obsidian Hair, the nāga king Holder of Water Power, the nāga king Sage of Mount Kailāśa, the nāga king Beautiful Coral, the nāga king Garland of Pleasant Sounds, the nāga king Sheep Face, the nāga king Skilled at Proclaiming the Abodes, the nāga king Manasvin, and the nāga king Vāsuki.
These nāga kings, numbering two million eight hundred thousand, all desired to hear the teachings of the Great Vehicle and then, having heard it, teach it to others. They all desired to explain the excellent Dharma. They conducted themselves by fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma and fully bearing the burden of protecting the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying.[F.116.a] Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were three million six hundred thousand yakṣa kings, such as the yakṣa king Vaiśravaṇa and others. These were the yakṣa king Vaiśravaṇa, the yakṣa king Crying Out, the yakṣa king Ungrasping, the yakṣa king Holder of Amazing Glory, the yakṣa king Charming Hands, the yakṣa king Great Fearsome Terrifier, the yakṣa king Inescapable Wrathful Brow, the yakṣa king Earth Quaker, the yakṣa king Sun Paralyzer, the yakṣa king Wise Conduct, the yakṣa king Fine Jewel, the yakṣa king Brilliant Lotus Storehouse, the yakṣa king Chariot-Driving Glorious Lotus Essence, the yakṣa king Glory of Completely Victorious Army, the yakṣa king Played by Five, and the yakṣa king Enjoying Jewels.
These yakṣa kings, numbering three million six hundred thousand, were all training according to the example of the bodhisattva conduct of the tathāgata Akṣobhya. They all conducted themselves by fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were four million nine hundred thousand garuḍa kings.[F.116.b] They included the garuḍa king Forceful Wind That Equals the Strength of a Great Mighty Elephant, the garuḍa king Roaring Wind, the garuḍa king Rumbling Like Drums, the garuḍa king Defeating the Haughty Powerful Nāgas, the garuḍa king Lustrous, the garuḍa king Great Brilliance, the garuḍa king Spreading Spotted Wings, the garuḍa king Bee-King Face, the garuḍa king Bearing the Cymbals of the Jewel of Knowledge, the garuḍa king Enjoys Utterly Defeating the Clan of the Nāga King Vast Wealth, the garuḍa king Enjoys Subjugating the Clan of the Nāga King Vast Wealth, the garuḍa king Authentic Perception, the garuḍa king Pleasing Proclamation of Great Loving-Kindness, the garuḍa king Dharma Joy, and the garuḍa king Golden Wing Offering.
These garuḍa kings, numbering four million nine hundred thousand, were all free from haughtiness, pride, and conceit. They had all given rise to devotion toward the Great Vehicle and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were six million eight hundred thousand gandharva kings, including the gandharva king Essence of Joy, the gandharva king Melody, the gandharva king Enjoys Preparation, the gandharva king Foremost of Gods, the gandharva king Enjoys Seizing by Force, and the gandharva king Jīvañjīva’s Cry.[F.117.a]
These gandharva kings, numbering six million eight hundred thousand, were all free from haughtiness, pride, and conceit. They had all given rise to devotion toward the Great Vehicle and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also nine million eight hundred thousand kinnara kings, including the kinnara king Beautiful and Charming, the kinnara king Nāga City, the kinnara king Ravishing Women’s Minds, the kinnara king Pleasing to Women’s Hearts, the kinnara king Lusts after Goddesses, the kinnara king Thief of Afflictions, the kinnara king Killer of Haughty Obstructers, the kinnara king Enjoys Māra’s Daughters, the kinnara king Subduer of Māra’s Armies, the kinnara king Essence of Gnosis, the kinnara king Profound Instruction, the kinnara king Glory of Stainless Appearance, the kinnara king Guards the Senses, and the kinnara king Far Seeing.
These kinnara kings, numbering nine million eight hundred thousand, were all free from haughtiness, pride, and conceit. They had all given rise to devotion toward the Great Vehicle and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also one million eight hundred thousand rākṣasa kings,[F.117.b] including the rākṣasa king Deserving of Fear, the rākṣasa king Rib Roaster, the rākṣasa king Golden-Haired Devourer of Ṛṣis, the rākṣasa king Crooked Teeth, the rākṣasa king Skull Cup with Ears, the rākṣasa king Yellow Honey-Color, the rākṣasa king Strong Throat, the rākṣasa king Great Roar, the rākṣasa king Cleaved Head, the rākṣasa king Arousing Strength, and the rākṣasa king Frightening Form.
These rākṣasa kings, numbering one million eight hundred thousand, were all freed from the nature of rākṣasas, their minds having been tamed by the Great Vehicle. They were all sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also seven million eight hundred thousand kumbhāṇḍa kings, including the kumbhāṇḍa king Great Elephant’s Trunk, the kumbhāṇḍa king Tiger-Like Haughtiness, and the kumbhāṇḍa king Extremely Great.
These kumbhāṇḍa kings, numbering seven million eight hundred thousand, were all freed from the nature of kumbhāṇḍas and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also three million eight hundred thousand bhūta kings, including the bhūta king Great Elephant Face, the bhūta king Tumor, the bhūta king House-Tunneling Robber, the bhūta king Donkey’s Bray,[F.118.a] the bhūta king Flower Earrings, the bhūta king Strung-Frog Rings, the bhūta king Adorned with Rat Teeth, the bhūta king Adorned with Cat’s Gait, the bhūta king Weasel Jaws, and the bhūta king Langur-Like Moon Face.
These bhūta kings, numbering three million eight hundred thousand, were all filled with devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle alone. Striking cymbals that played melodious sounds, inciting others to dance, after noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also eight million preta kings, including the preta king Lightning-Pacifying Venerable, the preta king Various Herbs Venerable, the preta king Bird’s Beak, and the preta king Ocean Stirrer.
These preta kings, numbering eight million, all fully enjoyed themselves within the Great Vehicle; their minds manifesting utter joy toward the Great Vehicle, they desired the Great Vehicle, thirsted after the Great Vehicle, craved the Great Vehicle, devoted themselves to the Great Vehicle, and hungered for the Great Vehicle. They had vowed to fully protect the excellent Dharma and solely engaged in the conduct of fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also eighty million eight hundred thousand asura kings, including the asura king Roaring in Front of King Splendid Robe,[F.118.b] the asura king Reviled by the Land, the asura king Entering into Ganges Stainlessness, the asura king Earth Pacifier, the asura king Bird Throat, the asura king Trident Holder, the asura king Ashen Locks, the asura king Fiercely Wrathful Ferocious One, and the asura king Power of Blazing Fire.
These asura kings, numbering eighty million eight hundred thousand, were all freed from the nature of asuras, having tamed and utterly controlled their minds. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also six million five hundred thousand vidyādhara kings, including the vidyādhara king Holder of Great Jewels and the vidyādhara king Holder of Inexhaustible Enjoyments.
These vidyādhara kings, numbering six million five hundred thousand, were all holders of the Great Vehicle. They desired and sought after samādhi; they desired to engage in the practice of the samādhis of the Great Vehicle; and they desired to clear away their own ambivalence. They solely engaged in the discipline and ascetic practice of fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also nine million nine hundred thousand ṛṣis who had obtained the five superknowledges, including the ṛṣi Son of Nārada, the ṛṣi Stopper, the ṛṣi Tree Bark,[F.119.a] the ṛṣi Ascetic, the ṛṣi Correct Practice, the ṛṣi All Conquering, the ṛṣi Understands the Renunciation of Negativity, the ṛṣi Agasti the Holder of Rāma’s Bow, the ṛṣi Deer Mother, the ṛṣi Meatless Food Offering, the ṛṣi Aspiring to Leave Behind the Sanctuary, the ṛṣi Holder of Sacred Water Who Accepted the Five Kauravas, the ṛṣi Leaving Behind Desire, the ṛṣi Delighting in the First Time, the ṛṣi Abiding Long as Indra, the ṛṣi Treasury-Possessing Kaurava, the ṛṣi Bharadvaja-Tree Bark, the ṛṣi Holder of Sacred Nāga Water, and the ṛṣi Gift of the Swamp.
These ṛṣis who had obtained the five superknowledges, numbering nine million nine hundred thousand, set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there was also Śakra, Lord of the Devas, and the host of devaputras from the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. They set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, the Four World Guardians, attended and surrounded by hundreds of thousands of devaputras, set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, King Prasenajit, the ruler of Kośala, came from Śrāvastī in his great royal chariot with his great ministers and their retinues,[F.119.b] together with the entire army in its four divisions. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of householders who had received the five precepts, including Sudatta and others. All of them had set out toward unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening. They desired the Dharma and pursued the Dharma. Thus, in order to emulate the Bhagavān himself and attain all the qualities included within awakening, they went to where the Bhagavān was staying. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there was also Candragupta, the prince of Pañcāla, together with his great ministers and a thousand city chieftains. They had all received the five precepts and had set out toward unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening. They desired the Dharma and pursued the Dharma. Thus, in order to emulate the Bhagavān himself and attain all the qualities included within awakening, they went to where the Bhagavān was staying. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, all the people of the cities, villages, districts, hamlets, provinces, and capitals of all the sixteen great kingdoms had visions of the Bhagavān and went to pay their respects to him. They were guardians of the excellent Dharma, having received the five precepts. They had all set out toward unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening; they desired the Dharma and pursued the Dharma. Thus, in order to emulate the Bhagavān himself and attain all the qualities included within awakening, they cultivated the mind of loving-kindness, and after noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet,[F.120.a] and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also sixteen thousand queens such as Queen Mallikā and others, attended by their retinues of ladies, together with a hundred thousand wives of great ministers. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of laywomen who set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, circumambulated the Bhagavān three times, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there was also Maheśvara together with hundreds of thousands of devaputras, all endowed with supernormal powers and great appearances. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. They made offerings of flower blossoms in quantities as large as Mount Meru, as well as incense, flower garlands, and ointments, all of which they scattered over the Tathāgata. Burning incenses, scattering colored powders, and striking cymbals, they proceeded to cover the Tathāgata with lotus flowers the size of chariot wheels. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of Brahmā youths such as Jewel Garland-Bearing Brahmā and Topknot-Bearing Brahmā. Through their great supernormal powers, they completely adorned the areas of Rājagṛha, Vulture Peak, and the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying.[F.120.b] Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet. Playing cymbals, they scattered flower blossoms over the Tathāgata, covering the entire area, and they then sprinkled sandalwood powder and various incenses. All around the great fields of merit—the areas of Rājagṛha, Vulture Peak, and the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana—and all the great lands that are the abodes of non-Buddhists, divine garments of wool, cotton, silk, and fine linen, which were perfumed by divine powder, beautified with sandalwood, and fumigated with divine incense, were conjured and arranged in a circle. Letting fall a great shower of flowers, they set out a lion throne for the Bhagavān, adorned with various divine jewels, which they proceeded to circumambulate three million times. Afterward, they each removed their upper robes and arrayed them on the Bhagavān’s body. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time there were also hundreds of thousands of goddesses, daughters of Māra, such as Māra’s daughter Fully Absorbing. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived, holding aloft whisks and peacock’s eye feathers, small divine cymbals, flutes, and incense, they scattered divine flower blossoms on the Tathāgata. They then played their cymbals, dancing and singing. These goddesses were all filled with devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle, desiring and favoring only the Great Vehicle. They went to where the Bhagavān was staying and, joining their palms, circumambulated the Bhagavān three times and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of apsarases, such as the apsaras Like a Plantain Tree. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying.[F.121.a] Having arrived, they scattered divine gold, divine jewel garlands, and divine flower garlands over the Tathāgata. Then, playing cymbals, they scattered sandalwood powder and various incenses. These apsarases were all freed from the cunning nature of a woman’s mind. They all possessed devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle, desiring and favoring only the Great Vehicle. Singing and dancing, they all prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and circumambulated him three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Then, at that very time, the Bhagavān, fully manifesting his supernormal powers, caused all the bhikṣus in all the directions of the land to go to Vulture Peak in Rājagṛha. Having arrived there, they went to where the Bhagavān was staying and, joining their palms, circumambulated the Bhagavān three times and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also harmonious and disharmonious sounds, like the melodies of a thousand cymbals, clearly resounding from the depths of empty space. A mass of great clouds, black like mountains of obsidian, rained down divine jewels, pervading and purifying everything everywhere, thundering the lion’s roar of the Bhagavān and extolling the virtues of receiving the Dharma teachings.
At that time, there were also the four great wind kings: the great wind king Scattering Wind, the great wind king Great Scattering Wind, the great wind king Unflagging Force, and the great wind king Great Terrifier. They all emitted pleasing, enjoyable, cooling flowers from the six seasons and a mixture of sweet fragrances[F.121.b] and were endowed with the enjoyments of divine bliss. To show reverence to the Bhagavān, these great wind kings produced great clouds that thundered the lion’s roar of the Bhagavān and extolled the virtues of receiving the Dharma teachings.[B2]
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of geese, including the goose king Lion-Like Hero. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. They then let loose a harmonious cry like the melody of a thousand well-made cymbals crafted by masters and their disciples. To show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of geese circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
Also, at that time, there were hundreds of thousands of peacocks, including the peacock king Radiant Appearance. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, filling their throats, they issued a harmonious cry like the melody of a thousand well-made cymbals crafted by gandharva masters and their disciples. To show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of peacocks circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of cuckoos, including the cuckoo king Leader. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then they let out a cry like the sound of a thousand cymbals, producing a cacophonous roar.[F.122.a] To show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of cuckoos, colored like bees, circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of kalaviṅka kings who made their homes in the snowy mountains, including the kalaviṅka king Lotus-Like Eyes. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of kalaviṅka birds circumambulated him three times while making beautiful sounds. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of bird kings called jīvañjīva. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of jīvañjīva birds circumambulated him three times while making beautiful sounds. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there was also a great flock of birds who, after noon, set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of birds circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of mountain kings, including the god of Mount Meru and the gods of Mount Mucilinda and Great Mount Mucilinda,[F.122.b] together with the devaputra Great Light. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, all the medicine goddesses residing in the snowy mountains set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. Then they adorned Vulture Peak, the most supreme of mountains, and entirely illuminated Rājagṛha and Vulture Peak, after which they all sat down to one side together.
At that time, there arose the beautiful, uncreated, unplayed musical sounds of drums, great drums, hand drums, conch horns, iron cymbals, hinḍima,12 gongs, great kettledrums, balbisa,13 lutes, one-sided kettledrums, bells, flutes, whistles, shunala,14 and other instruments.
At that time, out of reverence for the Bhagavān, a variety of flowers, fruits, shoots, and anthers blossomed forth unseasonably on all the trees, spreading all over Vulture Peak.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of lion kings residing in the snowy mountains, such as the lion king Precious Lotus. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. They let forth their lion’s roar, which was pleasing to all the wild animals that were frolicking about. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, they all circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places on Vulture Peak.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of mighty elephant kings, such as the mighty elephant king Mountaintop Cloud.[F.123.a] After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. They let forth a great roar, like the sound of thunder, and, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, they all proceeded to circumambulate him three times. Then they all took their places on Vulture Peak. In the same fashion, all wild animals took their places on Vulture Peak.
At that time, all venomous creatures, such as horseflies, winged insects, water monsters, fish, tortoises, scorpions, and venomous bugs, abandoned their poisons and settled down, free from the nature of poison.
At that time, all strongly venomous creatures, such as snakes, swift and malevolent snakes, albino snakes, and water snakes, abandoned their poisons and settled down, free from the nature of poison.
At that time, all sentient beings who had been struck by the four hundred and four diseases, all pretas, and all sentient beings born within the hell realms were given food and drink to satiate them, after which, touched by a pleasing and cooling breeze, they fell into a deep and enjoyable sleep.
At that time, all sentient beings who made their living by means of the sixteen great inexpiable occupations gave up the underlying nature of these inexpiable occupations. Then, they were all given food and drink to content them, after which, touched by a pleasing and cooling breeze, they fell into a deep and enjoyable sleep. All sentient beings with natures like piśācas and rākṣasas renounced meat eating and vowed to take up ethical discipline for the rest of their lives.
At that time, all sentient beings who had engaged in sexual misconduct or committed thievery took up and were tamed by ethical discipline,[F.123.b] rejoicing in the practice of correct restraint. Then, all those sentient beings who had engaged in the sixteen great inexpiable occupations, meat eating, sexual misconduct, and thievery engaged in mindful recollection. Afterward, they gathered to pay reverence, dancing and singing.
At that time, all those beings, together with all the assemblies of other gods, nāgas, yakṣas, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, gandharvas, asuras, rākṣasas, kumbhāṇḍas, bhūtas, pretas, Śakra, the world guardians, Brahmā, forest gods, vidyādharas, and the goddesses endowed with all desirable forms, listened to the great, supreme wheel of the collected Dharma teachings. Overjoyed, they wished to perfectly maintain pure discipline and to spread the Great Vehicle far and wide by realizing and upholding its great, unparalleled discourses. They wished to permanently establish all sentient beings within the excellent Dharma and to produce a great and vast accumulation of merit for all those future sentient beings with little merit, establishing them as well within the excellent Dharma. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they made offerings to the collected Dharma teachings of the Bhagavān and completely adorned him with a limitless array of ornaments. For a great while they prostrated, touching their heads to his glorious feet, which are like the late-autumn moon. They then circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence rose from his seat, draped his robe over one shoulder, touched his right knee to the ground, and bowed toward the Bhagavān with palms joined. He then addressed the Bhagavān, saying,[F.124.a] “I would like to ask about a few things, if the Bhagavān could grant the opportunity and give explanations in response to my questions.”
Having been entreated in this fashion, the Bhagavān replied to the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence, “Great Cloud Essence, you may ask the Tathāgata whatever you wish. Whatever you ask of me, I will put your mind at ease with an authoritative explanation.”
When this reply had been given, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence addressed the Bhagavān, saying, “Bhagavān, which of the various bodhisattva discourses contains the teaching on how to become an ocean of samādhis? How do we correctly develop the samādhis? How do we become an ocean of learning? How do we correctly develop learning? How do we avoid being skeptical, being ambivalent, or entertaining doubts concerning the attainment of unsurpassed, complete awakening? How do we avoid being born within unfree states of existence? How do we attain the recollection of previous lives? How do we thirst for the expansive ocean of saṃsāric activity? How can we behold the buddhas and never become separated from this sight during all our lifetimes, even in dreams? How do we prevent evil Māra from finding and taking advantage of opportunities to hinder the virtuous Dharmas of the buddhas? How do we subdue pride? How do we obtain dhāraṇīs?
“How do we become skilled at analyzing the concealed intent of the Tathāgata’s speech? How do we enter the secret gateway of all phenomena? How do we correctly expound the Tathāgata’s treasury? How do we practice in the Tathāgata’s manner? How do we become a makara in the Tathāgata’s ocean? How do we enter the Tathāgata’s scriptural tradition?[F.124.b] How do we guard the secrets of the Tathāgata’s illusory emanation? How do we proclaim the Tathāgata’s speech? How do we join with the Tathāgata’s perception? How do we become the light rays of the Tathāgata’s sun? How do we attain the brilliance of the Tathāgata’s moon? How do we become the highest tip of the Tathāgata’s emblem? How do we hold the Tathāgata’s borders?
“How do we diligently undertake the Tathāgata’s activities? How do we become as potent as the Tathāgata? How do we become the white lotus of the Tathāgata, which brings certainty to non-Buddhists? How do we enjoy the Tathāgata’s joy? How do we become a treasurer of the Tathāgata’s storehouse? How do we see the Tathāgata’s permanence? How do we see the permanence and eternality of the Tathāgata with extreme clarity and become kings of praising his exalted character? How do we proclaim eternality, stating that ‘the Tathāgata’s body is eternal’? How do we perfect the view of great joy in the Tathāgata’s tranquil nature? How do we become an ocean of the view of all the aspects of the Tathāgata, saying that ‘the Tathāgata is permanent, eternal, constant, and tranquil’?
“How do we see the reality that ‘the Tathāgata’s body is the Dharma body’? How do we see the truth that ‘the Tathāgata’s vajra body is an immutable body’? How do we proclaim emptiness, stating that ‘the Tathāgata’s body is not a body of bone, flesh, blood, or muscle’? How do we proclaim the existence of fruition, stating that ‘in the Tathāgata’s Dharma teachings, fruition exists’? How do we proclaim nonexistence, stating that[F.125.a] ‘in the Tathāgata’s Dharma teachings, the extinction of fruition is nonexistent’? How do we clearly proclaim that ‘the Tathāgata never enters into parinirvāṇa’? How do we praise discipline, saying that ‘all sentient beings who follow the Tathāgata in going forth to renunciation have uncorrupted discipline’? How do we praise nondeclining, saying that ‘the Tathāgata’s Dharma teachings will not decline’? How do we perfect the view maintaining that ‘because there are no stains in the Tathāgata’s thoroughly pure family and lineage, bodhisattvas belong to the family lineage of skillful means’?
“How can we think that being forever in cyclic existence is pleasant? How can we praise cyclic existence? How do we become an ocean of learning to cycle within existence? How do we desire to perceive the tathāgata family? What do we think about being forever afflicted? How can we think being afflicted is pleasant? How do we attain faith in obtaining the various aspects of the gateways out of the afflictions? How do we plant in our minds the aspiration toward the field of all the buddhas’ activities? How do we see and properly secure the discovery that ‘the root of all karmic activity is affliction’? How do we refrain from being skeptical, being ambivalent, or entertaining doubts about the Buddha’s permanence? How can we exhibit joy in cyclic existence? How can we turn toward cyclic existence?
“How do we develop a frame of mind imbued with the lasting faith that ‘I will become a buddha’? How do we become a bodhisattva, a captain, who makes the aspiration and commitment, ‘I will turn the wheel of Dharma. I will liberate all sentient beings. I will not cut off ties with my buddha heritage’?[F.125.b] How do we become a doctor to Māra? How do we become a teacher of the ocean of afflictions of cyclic existence? How do we envision reaching the trading town of the afflictions of cyclic existence? How do we quench our thirst by obtaining the great ocean of cyclic existence? How can we thirst for cyclic existence? How can we develop a frame of mind that is dependent upon obtaining cyclic existence? How can we not abandon the attainment of cyclic existence? How can we blossom like a kingly lotus flower in the waters of cyclic existence? How do we become the four oceans of cyclic existence? How can we continuously plant in our minds the aspiration toward the afflictions of cyclic existence?
“How can we be joyful about going into the hell realms? How can we think of going to the hell realms and conduct ourselves by always directing our thoughts toward going to the hell realms? How do we become a merchant within the trading town of the hell realms? How can we not abandon the attainment of the hell realms? How do we extensively contemplate the fires of the hell realms? How can we become a pleasing and cooling wind for those beings who have become afflicted by the afflictions of the hell realms? How do we become a shower of rainfall from the great cloud that falls upon the fierce fires of the hell realms? How do we become hail within the hell realms? How do we become a teacher of the hell realms? How do we become a great ferryman in the ocean of the hell realms? How do we become a doctor of the hell realms? How do we become sustenance in the hell realms?
“How do we be like a torch that clears away the thick darkness of those who are seized by all the suffering and afflictions of cyclic existence? How do we be like an oil lamp that shines light on all beings within existence? How do we be like open space, which can never be obscured by the various fast-acting and malevolent afflictions of beings within cyclic existence? How do we not abide anywhere,[F.126.a] because the mind is equal to space? How can we be like the sun, dissolving afflictions as if melting away a snowbank, having followed the Tathāgata in going forth to renunciation and possessing discipline, strength, and gnosis? How do we attain the state in which one does not posit the ways of other schools, because one has correctly adopted the most excellent position? How do we become like the ocean through possessing oceans of gnosis? How can we be like the moon, thoroughly perfecting all positive qualities? How can we be like the sun, clearing away the darkness of ignorance? How can we be like open space when entering into and migrating within cyclic existence by engaging in the afflictions? How can we be unsullied like a lotus flower by manifesting the various realizations? How can we not abide anywhere given that the mind is equal to space? How can we be like a vajra that decisively cuts through all phenomena?
“How can we be like a vajra that definitively pierces through all phenomena? How can we be like a mountain, not wavering when hearing of the permanent, eternal, constant greatness of the Tathāgata’s virtuous qualities? How can we be like beryl because the gnosis of the family and lineage of the Tathāgata is completely pure? How can we be like a golden boulder within the poisonous ocean, clearing away the turbidity of the afflictions? How can we be like the moon, seeing the permanent, eternal, constant nature of the Tathāgata? How can we be like a mountain, not wavering from the Tathāgata’s Dharma? How can we be like a door frame, not wavering when hearing that the Tathāgata does not pass into parinirvāṇa and that the Dharma will not disappear?
“How can we see what is truly so, so that the mind abides steadily? How can we attain the mind that is incorruptible like a vajra? How can we abundantly obtain a great display of virtuous qualities? How can we become endowed with a sense of shame and modesty? How can we become beautiful? How can we become pleasing to behold? How can we be without craving?[F.126.b] How can we avoid attaining a weak body? How can we become endowed with the most excellent complexion? How can we be born within a noble family? How can we be born within a great family? How can we have a great retinue? How can we have a retinue that does not decline? How can we avoid turning back and never turn back from unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening? How can we not have craving for food? How can we completely abandon foods containing meat? How can we become intelligent? How can we delight and be well respected by all beings? How can we become mindful? How can we become charismatic? How can we become wise? How can we become joyful?
“How can we act in harmony with the world? How can we desire to benefit the world? How can we take pleasure in the world? How can we become prominent within the world? How can we become a leader within the world? How can we become supreme within the world? How can we become the utmost within the world? How can we become worthy of receiving homage from all worlds? How can we become a recipient of offerings from all worlds?
“How can we become a great donor? How can we become strong? How can we become a great hero? How can we become perseverant? How can we become loving and kind? How can we speak the truth? How can we become steadfast in our ascetic practice? How can we exercise perseverance? How can we remain full of loving-kindness? How can we remain compassionate? How can we remain joyful? How can we remain equanimous? How can we profess the emptiness of all empty phenomena?[F.127.a] How can we profess the nonemptiness of all nonempty phenomena? How can we profess the meaning and the reasoning behind the Buddha’s teachings? How can we profess the view of the Buddha’s teachings of reality?
“How can we become pure? How can we become rich with purity? How can we become rich with awakened qualities? How can we become rich with discipline? How can we become rich with Dharma? How can we become rich with goods that were not obtained by stealing? How can we become like a treasury for all poor beings and beggars? How can we not become fearful or panic stricken and never panic when it is taught that all phenomena are empty, signless, and wishless? How can we attain birth within whichever buddhafield we aspire to be born into? How do we refrain from seeking after gain, respect, and praise?
“How can we gather all those with lax discipline and establish them within the sacred Dharma? How can we be like a hailstorm among all those who possess lax discipline and devious minds? How can we cause all those who do not appreciate the Tathāgata’s kindness to develop proper appreciation? How can we become unassailable within the abodes of the non-Buddhist schools and, moreover, treat them with skillful means? How can we not be dug into a hole by the many arguments of ascetics, brahmins, and non-Buddhists and, moreover, rely on skillful means when dealing with them? How can we never take interest in the esoteric teachings of all the non-Buddhist schools and, moreover, arouse their interest through skillful means? How can we never dwell in the abodes of the gods, nāgas, yakṣas, and gandharvas and, moreover, truly support them with skillful means?
“How can we make sure to never rely upon auspicious and propitious signs that are karmically conditioned? How can we engage in taking life while abandoning taking life? How can we simultaneously partake of all sense pleasures—flower garlands, fragrances,[F.127.b] lotions, powders, the enjoyments of a householder, various types of servants, and a spouse—while still maintaining the purest conduct? How can we engage in all such activities as killing, stealing, lying, hankering after drink, and so forth, and keeping company with spouses and children, while still maintaining the purest conduct?
“How can we receive offerings from all the tathāgatas? How can we become honored by all the tathāgatas? How can we become well respected by all the tathāgatas? How can we become a beloved child of all the tathāgatas? How can we proceed with proper appreciation of all the tathāgatas’ kindness? How can we see the reality of phenomena, which is equivalent to the activity of all the tathāgatas?
“How can we attain the authentic understanding of gnosis that is the same as that of all the buddhas? How can we become crowned as the ruler of the land of the authoritative explanations of the manifold secret aspects of the doctrines of all buddhas? How can we express the manifold aspects of the secret Dharma teachings of all buddhas? How can we become skilled at abiding within the state of pride accepted by all the buddhas? How can we attain the jewel-like pure nature of the Dharma teachings of all the buddhas, with their manifold secret aspects—desirelessness, stainlessness, and fearlessness? How can we correctly see and engage in all the phenomena such as desire, anger, ignorance, and fear, through the power by which all the buddhas tame sentient beings? How can we see the suchness of all secrets, through which all the buddhas have attained liberation from the ocean of afflictions after passing through many millions of long eons? How can we display birth within the ocean of afflictions through the power by which all the buddhas tame sentient beings?[F.128.a] And, with the thought that ‘having crossed over, I will attain liberation; having attained liberation, I will liberate others,’ how can we see the pure nature of the special secret gateways that have been taught? How can we behold the reality of the secret ways by which all the buddhas, having passed beyond many millions of long eons, have vanquished millions of māras? How can we, through the power by which all the buddhas tame sentient beings, see well the contrivance, which appears as a natural display, of the special, secret gateway of subduing Māra at the base of the Bodhi tree?
“How can we turn the wheel of Dharma through skillful means? How can we see the reality of the contrivance wherein, through skillful means, it appears that one passes into parinirvāṇa? How can we become the supreme king of the secret display of all the buddhas? How can we become the king who enumerates the inconceivable, unparalleled, incomparable, countless, limitless, innumerable domains of all the buddhas? Which bodhisattva discourse contains such teachings?”
Then, having been entreated in this fashion, the Bhagavān replied to the bodhisattva Great Cloud Essence, “Great Cloud Essence, excellent, excellent! Great Cloud Essence, to benefit and comfort all sentient beings, and for the welfare of all blind sentient beings, you have uttered these well-spoken words for the sake of attaining the greatness of qualities that is praised by all the tathāgatas. You have spoken for the sake of the eye of gnosis that knows reality. You have spoken for the sake of always seeing truly. You have spoken for the sake of crossing to the other shore of the ocean of the afflictions of cyclic existence. You have spoken for the sake of fully understanding the bodhisattva conduct of all tathāgatas. You have spoken for the sake of breaking open the eggshell of the afflictions of the ocean of cyclic existence and then, having correctly trained in the bodhisattva conduct, skillfully reentering the eggshell of the afflictions of the ocean of cyclic existence.
“You have spoken for the sake of causing all sentient beings who praise[F.128.b] impermanence, emptiness, parinirvāṇa, and selflessness to gain abiding confidence in the greatness of the qualities of the buddha—the essential nature of parinirvāṇa as permanent, eternal, constant, and tranquil. You have spoken for the sake of causing all sentient beings who claim that the Dharma will disappear to gain the completely pure eye that sees the steadfast nature of the sacred Dharma. You have spoken for the sake of performing great healing techniques on all sentient beings who have been struck by the poison of wrong views regarding all the forms of the godly abodes, by treating them with purgative and cleansing medicines. You have spoken for the sake of assuming the role of a great doctor skilled in the harm-dispelling medicine of the yogic techniques of secret mantra, uttering the correct knowledge mantras, and raising up the water-filled consecration vase for all sentient beings whose minds are thoroughly clouded and confused regarding the concealed intent of the tathāgata’s words.
“You have spoken for the sake of not revealing a view that is impermanent, unworthy, and not divine, in order to extract the poisoned arrow of affliction from those sentient beings such as the carakas, wanderers, nirgranthas, and others, who have been struck by the poison of grasping at unworthy divine forms as having a nature that is permanent and worthy and thus profess their permanence and worthiness. You have spoken for the sake of purifying away those views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of liberating others from being bound by those views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of causing others to purge and cleanse themselves of the causes of the illness of the views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of lancing the tumors caused by the poison of the views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of cutting out the fleshy growths that have completely obscured the eyesight of others who have been poisoned by the views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine.
“You have spoken for the sake of correctly revealing the entry point into the timely emanation of all the tathāgatas as well as into the domain of activity, the heritage, the marks, the fields,[F.129.a] the knowledge of reality, the taste, the delicious sustenance, the devotion to cause happiness, the pleasing and worthy bed of great qualities, the drinks, the ablutions, the incense, the flower garlands, the application of colored powders, the supremely and extremely fine garments, and the adornment of all the tathāgatas. You have spoken for the sake of correctly teaching that the Tathāgata’s body is the Dharma body. For these purposes, these words of yours were excellently spoken. Excellent!
“The Tathāgata’s body possesses the most profound characteristics, yet it does not have a single characteristic. It is not without something to characterize, yet the thing characterized is not apparent. It is not something to be realized, yet it is not not something to be realized. It is not on this side and it is not on the other side, yet it is not in between. It is not an origin, yet it is not without an origin. It is not here, yet it is not there. It is not permanent, yet it is not impermanent. It cannot be validated, yet it cannot be invalidated. It is not benighted, yet it is not not benighted. It is not little, yet it is not not little. It is not lightweight, yet it is not not lightweight. It is not cognizable, yet it is not uncognizable. It is not known by consciousness, yet it is not not known by consciousness. It is not abiding, yet it is not nonabiding. It is not obscured, yet it is not illuminated. It is not a name, nor is it a sign. It is not weak, nor is it strong. It does not abide in any place, nor does it abide in any direction. It is not virtuous, yet it is not unvirtuous. It is not conditioned, yet it is not unconditioned.
“It cannot be described as ‘It exists in such-and-such a place.’ It cannot be offered, nor can it be taken. It is not describable in words, yet it is not indescribable in words.[F.129.b] It is not true, yet it is not false. It is not true reality itself, yet it is not a metaphysical view. It is not emancipated from cyclic existence, yet it is not not emancipated. It is not a field, yet it is not not a field. It is not temporal, yet it is not atemporal. It cannot be undertaken, yet it cannot not be undertaken. It is not clean, yet it is not unclean. It is not made, yet it is not unmade. It is not produced, yet it does not cease. It is at peace, deeply at peace, fully at peace. It is not the elements, it is not the aggregates, and it is not the sense bases. It is not produced by the elements, it is not produced by the aggregates, and it is not produced by the sense bases. It does not arise from causes of affliction, and it does not arise from causes of karma. It is not accumulated, yet it is not unaccumulated.
“Without transmigrating after death, it transmigrates after death. It is boundless. It goes without going. It lends assistance. It has no outer limits. It has no shifting. Its nature does not abide in the present. Its nature of suchness, which has no form, no feeling, no cognition, no conceptual formations, and no consciousness, is inexhaustible. It is incapable of being exhausted. It is free from exhaustion. It is unequaled. It is equal to the unequaled. It is not consciousness. It is has truly passed beyond the four elements. It has reached the consummation of nonattachment to all phenomena. It is equal to the unlimited suchness that is the ultimate limit of reality. Thus, the Tathāgata’s body is endowed with unfathomable, incalculable qualities.
“The characteristics of the Tathāgata’s prolific speech are like this: his subtle words are extremely difficult to understand, extremely skillful, and extremely profound. All outsiders, as well as śrāvakas and[F.130.a] pratyekabuddhas, have not heard his previous speeches—not even a single word. They have been rendered blind and full of poison, crippled and infirm, covered up by the eggshell of worldly existence, shipwrecked, and completely incapacitated by the poisoned arrow of affliction.
“The Tathāgata’s prolific speech is for the sake of extracting the poisoned arrow of affliction, raising up the water-filled consecration vase, and proclaiming the correct knowledge mantras, secret mantras, and the yogic techniques that cause purging and cleansing—the great techniques that heal all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, as well as all sentient beings, who have been rendered unconscious and delirious by illnesses of bile. It is for the sake of stopping the phlegm and bile regarding the term parinirvāṇa from entering their hearts. It is for the sake of completely purifying their bellies. It is for the sake of lancing their poisonous tumors. It is for the sake of causing those who, like moths and ants, have been struck by poison and died, to gain total knowledge. It is for the sake of shining the lamplight of the gnosis of the Tathāgata’s permanence, eternality, constancy, and tranquility. It is for the sake of bringing forth the moon rays and sun rays of the knowledge of the reality of the Tathāgata’s permanence, eternality, constancy, and tranquility. It is for the sake of increasing the permanent eye of wisdom.
“It is for the sake of bringing about the attainment of unparalleled conduct. It is for the sake of exhibiting the substance of dhāraṇī and samādhi. It is for the sake of engendering the attainment of the exalted jewel of the scriptural tradition of the tathāgatas. It is for the sake of generating an excellent vision of the authentic mirror-like domain of the Tathāgata’s body. It is for the sake of breaking open the eggshell of ignorance of thinking that ‘the Tathāgata has completely passed into parinirvāṇa.’ It is for the sake of building a boat for those sentient beings who are shipwrecked in the great ocean of ignorance, thinking that ‘the Tathāgata’s teachings will disappear.’ It is for the sake of upholding the great healing technique and extracting the arrow of the view of those who have been struck by the poison of the thought that ‘the Tathāgata is impermanent, not eternal, not constant, and not at peace.’[F.130.b]
“In order to ease the jaundice caused by the complete confusion and thorough ignorance of thinking that ‘the Tathāgata is not eternal, not tranquil, not constant, and not permanent,’ all the tathāgatas together display their prolific speech by variously performing the conduct of teaching the secret Dharma of inconceivable complete liberation; through these various sorts of conduct, they manifestly abide and correctly engage in prolific speech. The words of their prolific speech, having such subtle characteristics, are extremely difficult to understand, extremely skilled, and adorned with extreme profundity.
The Great Cloud features a long dialogue between the Buddha Śākyamuni and a bodhisattva named Great Cloud Essence, who are periodically joined by various additional interlocutors from the vast audience of human and divine beings who have assembled to hear the Buddha’s teaching. The topics of their conversation are diverse and wide-ranging, but a central theme is the vast conduct of bodhisattvas, which is illustrated through the enumeration of the various meditative states and liberative techniques that bodhisattvas must master in order to minister to all sentient beings. This is followed by a conversation with the brahmin Kauṇḍinya concerning the Buddha’s cousin Devadatta, who is revealed to be a bodhisattva displaying the highest level of skillful means. Kauṇḍinya then inquires about the possibility of obtaining a relic from the Buddha, and another member of the audience responds with an explanation of how truly rare it is for a buddha relic to appear within the world. Finally, the discourse ends with the Buddha delivering a series of detailed prophecies describing the principal interlocutor’s future attainment of buddhahood, and he further explains the benefits and powers that can be obtained through the practice of this sūtra itself.
This translation was produced by Joshua Capitanio for the Mahamegha Translation Team. The translator is grateful to Christopher Jones (University of Cambridge) and Susan Roach for offering several helpful suggestions.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of an anonymous donor, who would like to dedicate it in memory of Lin, Zai-He and Lin Lee, Wan-Zhi.
The Great Cloud is an important Mahāyāna sūtra, known particularly as one source of the idea that a tathāgata is permanent and does not really pass into parinirvāṇa, but strategically displays an illusory body. To exemplify religious attainment for sentient beings, this emanated body seems to take birth, strive for awakening, and eventually pass into parinirvāṇa.1 In this sūtra this view is not merely implied or stated without comment, as it is in many sūtras, but is set out along with the claim that orthodox Buddhist doctrines of impermanence and selflessness are merely provisional teachings imparted by the Buddha for the sake of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas who were too trepidatious and spiritually immature to accept the realities of permanence and true selfhood.
These themes are shared with the famous Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra, which exerted a tremendous influence on doctrinal developments in Chinese and East Asian Buddhism in the fifth and sixth centuries. Indeed, Chinese bibliographers classified The Great Cloud with a handful of other sūtras that they considered to be related to the Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra, arguably the earliest extant work on buddha nature (tathāgatagarbha).2 Several Tibetan authors, too, beginning in the fourteenth century with Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen, listed the sūtra among those related to buddha nature or those of definitive meaning.3
The Great Cloud is also thematically related to The Golden Light (Suvarṇaprabhāsa, Toh 555–557),4 and a dialogue that occurs in chapter 37 between the brahmin Kauṇḍinya and a Licchavi youth is also found in the various Tibetan and Chinese recensions of that discourse.5
The Great Cloud opens with a long introduction that enumerates the various assemblies of human and nonhuman beings who were in attendance when the discourse was spoken. This section, which takes up the entirety of the first fascicle and continues into the second fascicle, is one of the longest and most detailed introductions to be found in any Mahāyāna sūtra. The scripture goes on to introduce the primary interlocutor, a bodhisattva named Great Cloud Essence, who emerges from the assembly to ask the Buddha a long series of questions on a variety of topics related to the conduct of bodhisattvas. The Buddha praises the bodhisattva’s questions and responds by introducing The Great Cloud, which is described as the “steadfast treasury of the sacred Dharma.” Great Cloud Essence asks for more teachings on this topic, and the Buddha grants his request, which prompts a great display of miraculous signs, eliciting praise for the Buddha’s qualities from the entire assembly.
In the second chapter, the Buddha explains that The Great Cloud contains four hundred “samādhi gateways” that all bodhisattvas should master, and he gives an extensive explanation of the first samādhi and its qualities. These qualities correspond to the questions asked by Great Cloud Essence in the first chapter. The Buddha then proceeds to enumerate the remaining samādhis and repeats all the qualities enumerated for the first samādhi, explaining that they apply likewise to all the other samādhi gateways.
These two long chapters are followed by a series of short sections. Chapters 3 through 36 each follow the same general structure: Great Cloud Essence asks the Bhagavān to enumerate a series of techniques or “gateways”—dhāraṇī gateways, liberation gateways, Dharma gateways, etc.—related to a single theme. The Buddha then lists those gateways, and a member of the audience steps forth, makes offerings, and offers a short praise of the Buddha’s teachings.
In the penultimate chapter, chapter 37, Great Cloud Essence asks again about the four hundred samādhi gateways, and the Buddha responds with a long discussion of the various practices to be performed by bodhisattvas who cultivate the teachings of The Great Cloud. An important theme of this section is that bodhisattvas must engage harmoniously with the world. As in The Teaching of Vimalakīrti,6 the Buddha recommends that bodhisattvas gather disciples by using skillful means to give the appearance of engaging in all manner of activities that might be considered contrary to the Dharma, such as having a family, accumulating wealth, and associating with non-Buddhists and people of questionable ethics.
Following this discussion, we are introduced to another interlocutor, the brahmin Kauṇḍinya, who steps forth to question the Buddha specifically about the Buddha’s cousin Devadatta. Kauṇḍinya condemns the conduct of Devadatta and the so-called “group of six monks,” who are always finding ways to break the rules of pure conduct set forth by the Buddha. However, Great Cloud Essence, speaking on behalf of the Buddha, chides Kauṇḍinya for his views and explains that Devadatta and the group of six are really bodhisattvas displaying skillful means. Following this, Kauṇḍinya requests the Buddha to grant him the boon of a relic that he can venerate. A Licchavi youth steps forward from the audience and explains to Kauṇḍinya just how rare it is for a buddha relic to appear in the world. Then, a goddess named Stainless Light steps forth and asks the Buddha about the brahmin and the Licchavi. The Buddha proceeds to explain that these two beings have been karmically connected for many eons, describe their former activities, and give a prophecy of their future attainment of buddhahood. The Buddha then gives further prophecies for these two individuals and for the goddess Stainless Light and the bodhisattva Great Cloud Essence. Most notably, Kauṇḍinya is to be reborn as the Mauryan king Aśoka.
The final chapter, chapter 38, continues this theme of prophecies, as a host of gods questions the Buddha about the future fate of this discourse. The Buddha explains that in the future there will be many people who will question the authenticity and legitimacy of this discourse and its teachings. However, there will arise one monk who will defend the sūtra and spread its teachings, and due to his dedication, the teachings will not disappear. The Buddha goes on to describe the merits that will come from practicing the teachings of this discourse. A series of marvels then occurs, including the appearance of a great light from the western region, and, when questioned by Great Cloud Essence, the Buddha describes all the altruistic magical acts that bodhisattvas who cultivate these teachings will display to engage with ordinary beings in accordance with their individual dispositions and guide them to take up the Buddhist teachings. Finally, the Buddha smiles and gives a prophecy for the goddess Stainless Light, explaining that she will be born as a princess who will rule her kingdom as a queen who will carry out many awakened activities before being reborn in the pure land of the buddha Amitābha, where she will finally attain buddhahood. In China, this prophecy came to be connected to the reign of Empress Wu in the seventh and early eighth centuries.7
The Great Cloud is classified within the “General Sūtra” section of the Tibetan Kangyur. The Tibetan translation is attributed to the Indian translator Surendrabodhi and the Tibetan translator and editor Yeshe Dé. The Great Cloud is listed in the ninth-century Denkarma catalog, in which it is included among the “Various Great Vehicle Sūtras.”8 It is also recorded in the ninth-century Phangthangma catalog, in the category of “Great Sūtras.”9
The Dégé Kangyur contains three additional sūtras (Toh 233–235) that are all related somehow through content and intertextual reference to The Great Cloud (Toh 232) that we have translated here. These three texts all present themselves as individual chapters that belong to The Great Cloud. This may perhaps be a reference to Toh 232, but the exact relationship and history of the four texts nevertheless remains unclear.
Toh 233 presents itself as the “thirty-seventh chapter” of The Great Cloud, even though Toh 232 as contained in the Dégé Kangyur already contains a chapter 37 that is altogether different. While Toh 233 contains thematic elements that connect it to Toh 232, such as the presence of the bodhisattva Great Cloud Essence and references to the Dharma gateways contained within The Great Cloud, it largely consists of original material.
Toh 234 is entitled The Great Cloud Chapter on the Array of Winds, The Essence of All Nāgas and also presents itself as (an unnumbered) chapter of The Great Cloud. This text is quite close in content to Toh 235 and both texts appear to have been intended largely for ritual and recitation purposes to achieve timely and appropriate rains. Toh 235 is simply titled The Great Cloud, but in the colophon a more specific title is given, as From “The Great Cloud,” the Sixty-Fourth Chapter “The Array of Winds That Send Down Rainfall” Together With its Ritual Manual. Despite this supplementary text being presented as the “sixty-fourth chapter” of The Great Cloud, Toh 232 itself in all its extant versions only contains thirty-eight chapters. Further research is therefore required to establish the relationship and shared history of these four interrelated texts.
This scripture was also translated into Chinese (Taishō 387) in the early fifth century by Dharmakṣema (385–433), who also translated the Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra. The title of the Chinese translation is given as The Great Vaipulya Discourse on Nonconceptuality 大方等無想經, but the text refers to itself internally as The Great Cloud 大雲經. Scholars have debated whether all or part of the Tibetan translation of this sūtra was made on the basis of a later version of the Chinese translation.10 The Chinese and Tibetan versions follow the same overall structure and generally contain the same content, but there are several discrepancies, and the Tibetan version is much more detailed in certain sections, particularly in the opening description of the audience that was present when the discourse was spoken. The fact that there is an extant Sanskrit manuscript of this sūtra, which preserves about 80% of the text, only came to our attention after completing the translation.11 At present, this manuscript remains inaccessible to us. The English translation presented here was based primarily on the Tibetan Degé edition, in consultation with the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace manuscript edition. Dharmakṣema’s Chinese translation was also consulted throughout.
[F.113.a][B1]Homage to all buddhas, bodhisattvas, exalted śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Bhagavān was residing on Vulture Peak in Rājagṛha with an assembly of nine million eight hundred thousand bhikṣus including Mahākāśyapa. All of them were worthy ones who had exhausted their defilements, had attained mastery, and were free from afflictions. They were omniscient ones, great elephants, their minds perfectly liberated, their wisdom perfectly liberated, who had accomplished their tasks and completed their work. They had cast off their burdens and fulfilled their aims. Their minds had been emancipated through correct cognition, and they had thoroughly exhausted all the fetters binding them to existence. They possessed very pure discipline and had obtained supreme perfection in mastering all mental states. They were proficient in the superknowledges. Together, they were all absorbed in meditation on the eight liberations.
After noon, the elder Mahākāśyapa and the other nine million eight hundred thousand bhikṣus set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also six million five hundred thousand bhikṣuṇīs, including Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī and others. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.[F.113.b]
At that time, there were also six million eight hundred thousand bodhisattvas, great lords, including Great Cloud Essence and others. These included the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Light Protector, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Lightning Flash, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Thunderclap, Great Cloud Protector of Diligence, Great Cloud Producer of Joy, Great Cloud Utter Joy, Great Cloud Heap, Great Cloud Vajra Glory, Great Cloud Proclaimer of Certainty, Great Cloud Fame, Great Cloud Lightning Net, Great Cloud Lightning Offering, Great Cloud King of Skillful Analysis, Great Cloud Playful Gait, Great Cloud King of the Lion’s Roar, Great Cloud Vast Intellect, Great Cloud Sustained by Diligence, Great Cloud King of the Seeing Eye, Great Cloud King of Magical Manifestation, Great Cloud Infinitely Renowned as Exalted, Great Cloud Correct View, Great Cloud Lord of Non-Buddhists, Great Cloud Field of Merit, Great Cloud Attainment of Coolness, Great Cloud Solar Essence, Great Cloud Lunar Brilliance, Great Cloud Priceless Beryl, Great Cloud Ever Watchful, Great Cloud Delighting in the Eternal Nature, Great Cloud Ocean of Intelligence, Great Cloud Victorious Army, Great Cloud Vast Light, Great Cloud Victorious Nāga Offering, Great Cloud Glory of Living Joyously, Great Cloud Captain’s Eye, Great Cloud Heaped Crowns,[F.114.a] Great Cloud Teacher, Great Cloud Seed Protector, Great Cloud Victorious White Lotus, Great Cloud Fire-Like Lotus of Gnosis, Great Cloud Fragrance of Perfume-Infused Utpala Flower, Great Cloud Tiger, Great Cloud Acting as a Guide, Great Cloud Fearless Roar, Great Cloud Coolness of Tamala Leaves, Great Cloud Bathed in Precious Sandalwood, Great Cloud Excellence, Great Cloud Skilled in Marvels, Great Cloud Joyful Child without Craving, Great Cloud Most Skilled in Poetry, Great Cloud Entering into the Subtle Essence, Great Cloud Lush Face of the White Lotus of the Supreme Dharma, Great Cloud Realization of the Continuity of the Excellent Dharma, Great Cloud Bliss of Renown, Great Cloud Glorious Golden Mountain King, Great Cloud Bestowing All Medicines, Great Cloud Medicine King, Great Cloud Great Body, Great Cloud Fully Exalted within Space, Great Cloud Thundering, Great Cloud Dispelling Stains, Great Cloud Glorious Lotus Lamp, Great Cloud Unmixed Conception That Does Not Apprehend Resounding, Great Cloud Dispelling Darkness, and Great Cloud Dispelling Hail.
After noon these bodhisattvas, numbering six million eight hundred thousand, set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With joined palms, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were five million eight hundred thousand Licchavi youths, including Lion Lamp and others.[F.114.b] They included the Licchavi youth Dharma Offering, the Licchavi youth Nāga Head, the Licchavi youth Dharma Teachings, the Licchavi youth Indra’s Offering, the Licchavi youth Indra’s Standard, the Licchavi youth Light of Indra’s Banner, the Licchavi youth Intelligence Resounding as a Lion’s Roar, the Licchavi youth Precious Voice, the Licchavi youth Pleasant Glory, the Licchavi youth Nāga Glory, the Licchavi youth Vajra Garland, the Licchavi youth Buddha’s Servant, the Licchavi youth Conqueror’s Servant, the Licchavi youth Conqueror’s Moon, the Licchavi youth Great Arms, the Licchavi youth Great Glory, the Licchavi youth Ganges Offering, the Licchavi youth Essence of Gentle Glory, the Licchavi youth Strength of Nāga Joy, the Licchavi youth Nāga Protector, the Licchavi youth Dharma Protector, the Licchavi youth Luminous Renown, the Licchavi youth Sky Treasury, the Licchavi youth Ganges Protector, the Licchavi youth Adorned with Rākṣasa Earrings, the Licchavi youth Lightning Garland, the Licchavi youth Extraordinary Joy, the Licchavi youth Extraordinary Family, the Licchavi youth Stainless Light Renown, the Licchavi youth Kṛṣṇa’s Offering, the Licchavi youth Earth Lord, the Licchavi youth Earth Garland, and the Licchavi youth Unparalleled Vajra Servant.
These Licchavi youths, numbering five million eight hundred thousand, had all completely set out toward the attainment of unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening, their minds utterly enjoying the Great Vehicle.[F.115.a] After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were four million four hundred thousand devaputras such as Gandharva King Delightful Appearance and others. They were the devaputra Gandharva King Delightful Appearance, the devaputra Renowned for Joyous Faith, the devaputra Moon Crested, the devaputra Sun Colored, the devaputra Earring Adorned, the devaputra King of Pleasant Music, the devaputra Great Glory, the devaputra Engaging in Profound Conduct, the devaputra Great Black One, the devaputra Courageous Intellect, the devaputra Stainless Space-Like Eyes, the devaputra Glory of Complete Dedication to Joy, the devaputra Joy Garland King, the devaputra Luminous Renown of Joy, the devaputra Joyful Face, the devaputra Mind Enchanting, the devaputra Beryl Light, the devaputra Appearance of Beryl-Like Light, the devaputra Enjoys the Stars, the devaputra Half-Moon Forehead, the devaputra Profound Definitive Proclamation, the devaputra Complete Defeat of Affliction, the devaputra Joy of Indra, the devaputra Charming Youth, the devaputra Māndārava Heap, the devaputra Holding a Wish-Fulfilling Vine by the Head, the devaputra Intellect That Removes All Locks, and the devaputra Holder of Excellent Dharma.
These devaputras, numbering four million four hundred thousand, were all filled with devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle. They took joy only in protecting the excellent Dharma, in spreading the excellent Dharma,[F.115.b] and in maintaining all the various samādhis. In order to benefit and please all sentient beings, they set forth after noon from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were two million eight hundred thousand nāga kings, including the nāga king Padma, the nāga king Takṣaka, the nāga king Sāgara, the nāga king Anavatapta, the nāga king Strong Moving, the nāga king Son of Infinitely Vast Wealth, the nāga king Abode of Prosperity, the nāga king Child’s Play, the nāga king Sharpest Teeth, the nāga king Many Households, the nāga king Clear-Limbed Deer Eyes, the nāga king Bṛhaspati’s Science of Grammar, the nāga king Golden Face, the nāga king Obsidian Hair, the nāga king Holder of Water Power, the nāga king Sage of Mount Kailāśa, the nāga king Beautiful Coral, the nāga king Garland of Pleasant Sounds, the nāga king Sheep Face, the nāga king Skilled at Proclaiming the Abodes, the nāga king Manasvin, and the nāga king Vāsuki.
These nāga kings, numbering two million eight hundred thousand, all desired to hear the teachings of the Great Vehicle and then, having heard it, teach it to others. They all desired to explain the excellent Dharma. They conducted themselves by fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma and fully bearing the burden of protecting the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying.[F.116.a] Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were three million six hundred thousand yakṣa kings, such as the yakṣa king Vaiśravaṇa and others. These were the yakṣa king Vaiśravaṇa, the yakṣa king Crying Out, the yakṣa king Ungrasping, the yakṣa king Holder of Amazing Glory, the yakṣa king Charming Hands, the yakṣa king Great Fearsome Terrifier, the yakṣa king Inescapable Wrathful Brow, the yakṣa king Earth Quaker, the yakṣa king Sun Paralyzer, the yakṣa king Wise Conduct, the yakṣa king Fine Jewel, the yakṣa king Brilliant Lotus Storehouse, the yakṣa king Chariot-Driving Glorious Lotus Essence, the yakṣa king Glory of Completely Victorious Army, the yakṣa king Played by Five, and the yakṣa king Enjoying Jewels.
These yakṣa kings, numbering three million six hundred thousand, were all training according to the example of the bodhisattva conduct of the tathāgata Akṣobhya. They all conducted themselves by fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were four million nine hundred thousand garuḍa kings.[F.116.b] They included the garuḍa king Forceful Wind That Equals the Strength of a Great Mighty Elephant, the garuḍa king Roaring Wind, the garuḍa king Rumbling Like Drums, the garuḍa king Defeating the Haughty Powerful Nāgas, the garuḍa king Lustrous, the garuḍa king Great Brilliance, the garuḍa king Spreading Spotted Wings, the garuḍa king Bee-King Face, the garuḍa king Bearing the Cymbals of the Jewel of Knowledge, the garuḍa king Enjoys Utterly Defeating the Clan of the Nāga King Vast Wealth, the garuḍa king Enjoys Subjugating the Clan of the Nāga King Vast Wealth, the garuḍa king Authentic Perception, the garuḍa king Pleasing Proclamation of Great Loving-Kindness, the garuḍa king Dharma Joy, and the garuḍa king Golden Wing Offering.
These garuḍa kings, numbering four million nine hundred thousand, were all free from haughtiness, pride, and conceit. They had all given rise to devotion toward the Great Vehicle and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
Also, at that time, there were six million eight hundred thousand gandharva kings, including the gandharva king Essence of Joy, the gandharva king Melody, the gandharva king Enjoys Preparation, the gandharva king Foremost of Gods, the gandharva king Enjoys Seizing by Force, and the gandharva king Jīvañjīva’s Cry.[F.117.a]
These gandharva kings, numbering six million eight hundred thousand, were all free from haughtiness, pride, and conceit. They had all given rise to devotion toward the Great Vehicle and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also nine million eight hundred thousand kinnara kings, including the kinnara king Beautiful and Charming, the kinnara king Nāga City, the kinnara king Ravishing Women’s Minds, the kinnara king Pleasing to Women’s Hearts, the kinnara king Lusts after Goddesses, the kinnara king Thief of Afflictions, the kinnara king Killer of Haughty Obstructers, the kinnara king Enjoys Māra’s Daughters, the kinnara king Subduer of Māra’s Armies, the kinnara king Essence of Gnosis, the kinnara king Profound Instruction, the kinnara king Glory of Stainless Appearance, the kinnara king Guards the Senses, and the kinnara king Far Seeing.
These kinnara kings, numbering nine million eight hundred thousand, were all free from haughtiness, pride, and conceit. They had all given rise to devotion toward the Great Vehicle and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also one million eight hundred thousand rākṣasa kings,[F.117.b] including the rākṣasa king Deserving of Fear, the rākṣasa king Rib Roaster, the rākṣasa king Golden-Haired Devourer of Ṛṣis, the rākṣasa king Crooked Teeth, the rākṣasa king Skull Cup with Ears, the rākṣasa king Yellow Honey-Color, the rākṣasa king Strong Throat, the rākṣasa king Great Roar, the rākṣasa king Cleaved Head, the rākṣasa king Arousing Strength, and the rākṣasa king Frightening Form.
These rākṣasa kings, numbering one million eight hundred thousand, were all freed from the nature of rākṣasas, their minds having been tamed by the Great Vehicle. They were all sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also seven million eight hundred thousand kumbhāṇḍa kings, including the kumbhāṇḍa king Great Elephant’s Trunk, the kumbhāṇḍa king Tiger-Like Haughtiness, and the kumbhāṇḍa king Extremely Great.
These kumbhāṇḍa kings, numbering seven million eight hundred thousand, were all freed from the nature of kumbhāṇḍas and had become sole protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also three million eight hundred thousand bhūta kings, including the bhūta king Great Elephant Face, the bhūta king Tumor, the bhūta king House-Tunneling Robber, the bhūta king Donkey’s Bray,[F.118.a] the bhūta king Flower Earrings, the bhūta king Strung-Frog Rings, the bhūta king Adorned with Rat Teeth, the bhūta king Adorned with Cat’s Gait, the bhūta king Weasel Jaws, and the bhūta king Langur-Like Moon Face.
These bhūta kings, numbering three million eight hundred thousand, were all filled with devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle alone. Striking cymbals that played melodious sounds, inciting others to dance, after noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also eight million preta kings, including the preta king Lightning-Pacifying Venerable, the preta king Various Herbs Venerable, the preta king Bird’s Beak, and the preta king Ocean Stirrer.
These preta kings, numbering eight million, all fully enjoyed themselves within the Great Vehicle; their minds manifesting utter joy toward the Great Vehicle, they desired the Great Vehicle, thirsted after the Great Vehicle, craved the Great Vehicle, devoted themselves to the Great Vehicle, and hungered for the Great Vehicle. They had vowed to fully protect the excellent Dharma and solely engaged in the conduct of fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also eighty million eight hundred thousand asura kings, including the asura king Roaring in Front of King Splendid Robe,[F.118.b] the asura king Reviled by the Land, the asura king Entering into Ganges Stainlessness, the asura king Earth Pacifier, the asura king Bird Throat, the asura king Trident Holder, the asura king Ashen Locks, the asura king Fiercely Wrathful Ferocious One, and the asura king Power of Blazing Fire.
These asura kings, numbering eighty million eight hundred thousand, were all freed from the nature of asuras, having tamed and utterly controlled their minds. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also six million five hundred thousand vidyādhara kings, including the vidyādhara king Holder of Great Jewels and the vidyādhara king Holder of Inexhaustible Enjoyments.
These vidyādhara kings, numbering six million five hundred thousand, were all holders of the Great Vehicle. They desired and sought after samādhi; they desired to engage in the practice of the samādhis of the Great Vehicle; and they desired to clear away their own ambivalence. They solely engaged in the discipline and ascetic practice of fully supporting all protectors of the excellent Dharma. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also nine million nine hundred thousand ṛṣis who had obtained the five superknowledges, including the ṛṣi Son of Nārada, the ṛṣi Stopper, the ṛṣi Tree Bark,[F.119.a] the ṛṣi Ascetic, the ṛṣi Correct Practice, the ṛṣi All Conquering, the ṛṣi Understands the Renunciation of Negativity, the ṛṣi Agasti the Holder of Rāma’s Bow, the ṛṣi Deer Mother, the ṛṣi Meatless Food Offering, the ṛṣi Aspiring to Leave Behind the Sanctuary, the ṛṣi Holder of Sacred Water Who Accepted the Five Kauravas, the ṛṣi Leaving Behind Desire, the ṛṣi Delighting in the First Time, the ṛṣi Abiding Long as Indra, the ṛṣi Treasury-Possessing Kaurava, the ṛṣi Bharadvaja-Tree Bark, the ṛṣi Holder of Sacred Nāga Water, and the ṛṣi Gift of the Swamp.
These ṛṣis who had obtained the five superknowledges, numbering nine million nine hundred thousand, set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there was also Śakra, Lord of the Devas, and the host of devaputras from the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. They set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, the Four World Guardians, attended and surrounded by hundreds of thousands of devaputras, set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, King Prasenajit, the ruler of Kośala, came from Śrāvastī in his great royal chariot with his great ministers and their retinues,[F.119.b] together with the entire army in its four divisions. After noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of householders who had received the five precepts, including Sudatta and others. All of them had set out toward unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening. They desired the Dharma and pursued the Dharma. Thus, in order to emulate the Bhagavān himself and attain all the qualities included within awakening, they went to where the Bhagavān was staying. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there was also Candragupta, the prince of Pañcāla, together with his great ministers and a thousand city chieftains. They had all received the five precepts and had set out toward unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening. They desired the Dharma and pursued the Dharma. Thus, in order to emulate the Bhagavān himself and attain all the qualities included within awakening, they went to where the Bhagavān was staying. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, all the people of the cities, villages, districts, hamlets, provinces, and capitals of all the sixteen great kingdoms had visions of the Bhagavān and went to pay their respects to him. They were guardians of the excellent Dharma, having received the five precepts. They had all set out toward unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening; they desired the Dharma and pursued the Dharma. Thus, in order to emulate the Bhagavān himself and attain all the qualities included within awakening, they cultivated the mind of loving-kindness, and after noon they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet,[F.120.a] and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also sixteen thousand queens such as Queen Mallikā and others, attended by their retinues of ladies, together with a hundred thousand wives of great ministers. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of laywomen who set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, circumambulated the Bhagavān three times, and sat down to one side.
At that time, there was also Maheśvara together with hundreds of thousands of devaputras, all endowed with supernormal powers and great appearances. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. They made offerings of flower blossoms in quantities as large as Mount Meru, as well as incense, flower garlands, and ointments, all of which they scattered over the Tathāgata. Burning incenses, scattering colored powders, and striking cymbals, they proceeded to cover the Tathāgata with lotus flowers the size of chariot wheels. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of Brahmā youths such as Jewel Garland-Bearing Brahmā and Topknot-Bearing Brahmā. Through their great supernormal powers, they completely adorned the areas of Rājagṛha, Vulture Peak, and the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying.[F.120.b] Having arrived there, they all prostrated, touching their heads to his feet. Playing cymbals, they scattered flower blossoms over the Tathāgata, covering the entire area, and they then sprinkled sandalwood powder and various incenses. All around the great fields of merit—the areas of Rājagṛha, Vulture Peak, and the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana—and all the great lands that are the abodes of non-Buddhists, divine garments of wool, cotton, silk, and fine linen, which were perfumed by divine powder, beautified with sandalwood, and fumigated with divine incense, were conjured and arranged in a circle. Letting fall a great shower of flowers, they set out a lion throne for the Bhagavān, adorned with various divine jewels, which they proceeded to circumambulate three million times. Afterward, they each removed their upper robes and arrayed them on the Bhagavān’s body. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time there were also hundreds of thousands of goddesses, daughters of Māra, such as Māra’s daughter Fully Absorbing. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived, holding aloft whisks and peacock’s eye feathers, small divine cymbals, flutes, and incense, they scattered divine flower blossoms on the Tathāgata. They then played their cymbals, dancing and singing. These goddesses were all filled with devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle, desiring and favoring only the Great Vehicle. They went to where the Bhagavān was staying and, joining their palms, circumambulated the Bhagavān three times and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of apsarases, such as the apsaras Like a Plantain Tree. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying.[F.121.a] Having arrived, they scattered divine gold, divine jewel garlands, and divine flower garlands over the Tathāgata. Then, playing cymbals, they scattered sandalwood powder and various incenses. These apsarases were all freed from the cunning nature of a woman’s mind. They all possessed devotion and delight toward the Great Vehicle, desiring and favoring only the Great Vehicle. Singing and dancing, they all prostrated, touching their heads to the Bhagavān’s feet, and circumambulated him three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
Then, at that very time, the Bhagavān, fully manifesting his supernormal powers, caused all the bhikṣus in all the directions of the land to go to Vulture Peak in Rājagṛha. Having arrived there, they went to where the Bhagavān was staying and, joining their palms, circumambulated the Bhagavān three times and sat down to one side.
At that time, there were also harmonious and disharmonious sounds, like the melodies of a thousand cymbals, clearly resounding from the depths of empty space. A mass of great clouds, black like mountains of obsidian, rained down divine jewels, pervading and purifying everything everywhere, thundering the lion’s roar of the Bhagavān and extolling the virtues of receiving the Dharma teachings.
At that time, there were also the four great wind kings: the great wind king Scattering Wind, the great wind king Great Scattering Wind, the great wind king Unflagging Force, and the great wind king Great Terrifier. They all emitted pleasing, enjoyable, cooling flowers from the six seasons and a mixture of sweet fragrances[F.121.b] and were endowed with the enjoyments of divine bliss. To show reverence to the Bhagavān, these great wind kings produced great clouds that thundered the lion’s roar of the Bhagavān and extolled the virtues of receiving the Dharma teachings.[B2]
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of geese, including the goose king Lion-Like Hero. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. They then let loose a harmonious cry like the melody of a thousand well-made cymbals crafted by masters and their disciples. To show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of geese circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
Also, at that time, there were hundreds of thousands of peacocks, including the peacock king Radiant Appearance. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, filling their throats, they issued a harmonious cry like the melody of a thousand well-made cymbals crafted by gandharva masters and their disciples. To show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of peacocks circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of cuckoos, including the cuckoo king Leader. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then they let out a cry like the sound of a thousand cymbals, producing a cacophonous roar.[F.122.a] To show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of cuckoos, colored like bees, circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of kalaviṅka kings who made their homes in the snowy mountains, including the kalaviṅka king Lotus-Like Eyes. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of kalaviṅka birds circumambulated him three times while making beautiful sounds. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of bird kings called jīvañjīva. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of jīvañjīva birds circumambulated him three times while making beautiful sounds. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there was also a great flock of birds who, after noon, set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they each joined their wings together like palms and prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, the entire assembly of birds circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of mountain kings, including the god of Mount Meru and the gods of Mount Mucilinda and Great Mount Mucilinda,[F.122.b] together with the devaputra Great Light. After noon, they all set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet, and circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places in the Kalandkanivāpa in the Veṇuvana.
At that time, all the medicine goddesses residing in the snowy mountains set forth from their respective abodes after noon and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. Then they adorned Vulture Peak, the most supreme of mountains, and entirely illuminated Rājagṛha and Vulture Peak, after which they all sat down to one side together.
At that time, there arose the beautiful, uncreated, unplayed musical sounds of drums, great drums, hand drums, conch horns, iron cymbals, hinḍima,12 gongs, great kettledrums, balbisa,13 lutes, one-sided kettledrums, bells, flutes, whistles, shunala,14 and other instruments.
At that time, out of reverence for the Bhagavān, a variety of flowers, fruits, shoots, and anthers blossomed forth unseasonably on all the trees, spreading all over Vulture Peak.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of lion kings residing in the snowy mountains, such as the lion king Precious Lotus. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. They let forth their lion’s roar, which was pleasing to all the wild animals that were frolicking about. Then, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, they all circumambulated him three times. Then they all took their places on Vulture Peak.
At that time, there were also hundreds of thousands of mighty elephant kings, such as the mighty elephant king Mountaintop Cloud.[F.123.a] After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they prostrated to the Bhagavān, touching their heads to his feet. They let forth a great roar, like the sound of thunder, and, to show their reverence for the Bhagavān, they all proceeded to circumambulate him three times. Then they all took their places on Vulture Peak. In the same fashion, all wild animals took their places on Vulture Peak.
At that time, all venomous creatures, such as horseflies, winged insects, water monsters, fish, tortoises, scorpions, and venomous bugs, abandoned their poisons and settled down, free from the nature of poison.
At that time, all strongly venomous creatures, such as snakes, swift and malevolent snakes, albino snakes, and water snakes, abandoned their poisons and settled down, free from the nature of poison.
At that time, all sentient beings who had been struck by the four hundred and four diseases, all pretas, and all sentient beings born within the hell realms were given food and drink to satiate them, after which, touched by a pleasing and cooling breeze, they fell into a deep and enjoyable sleep.
At that time, all sentient beings who made their living by means of the sixteen great inexpiable occupations gave up the underlying nature of these inexpiable occupations. Then, they were all given food and drink to content them, after which, touched by a pleasing and cooling breeze, they fell into a deep and enjoyable sleep. All sentient beings with natures like piśācas and rākṣasas renounced meat eating and vowed to take up ethical discipline for the rest of their lives.
At that time, all sentient beings who had engaged in sexual misconduct or committed thievery took up and were tamed by ethical discipline,[F.123.b] rejoicing in the practice of correct restraint. Then, all those sentient beings who had engaged in the sixteen great inexpiable occupations, meat eating, sexual misconduct, and thievery engaged in mindful recollection. Afterward, they gathered to pay reverence, dancing and singing.
At that time, all those beings, together with all the assemblies of other gods, nāgas, yakṣas, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, gandharvas, asuras, rākṣasas, kumbhāṇḍas, bhūtas, pretas, Śakra, the world guardians, Brahmā, forest gods, vidyādharas, and the goddesses endowed with all desirable forms, listened to the great, supreme wheel of the collected Dharma teachings. Overjoyed, they wished to perfectly maintain pure discipline and to spread the Great Vehicle far and wide by realizing and upholding its great, unparalleled discourses. They wished to permanently establish all sentient beings within the excellent Dharma and to produce a great and vast accumulation of merit for all those future sentient beings with little merit, establishing them as well within the excellent Dharma. After noon, they set forth from their respective abodes and went to where the Bhagavān was staying. Having arrived there, they made offerings to the collected Dharma teachings of the Bhagavān and completely adorned him with a limitless array of ornaments. For a great while they prostrated, touching their heads to his glorious feet, which are like the late-autumn moon. They then circumambulated the Bhagavān three times. With palms joined, they bowed toward the Bhagavān and sat down to one side.
At that time, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence rose from his seat, draped his robe over one shoulder, touched his right knee to the ground, and bowed toward the Bhagavān with palms joined. He then addressed the Bhagavān, saying,[F.124.a] “I would like to ask about a few things, if the Bhagavān could grant the opportunity and give explanations in response to my questions.”
Having been entreated in this fashion, the Bhagavān replied to the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence, “Great Cloud Essence, you may ask the Tathāgata whatever you wish. Whatever you ask of me, I will put your mind at ease with an authoritative explanation.”
When this reply had been given, the bodhisattva mahāsattva Great Cloud Essence addressed the Bhagavān, saying, “Bhagavān, which of the various bodhisattva discourses contains the teaching on how to become an ocean of samādhis? How do we correctly develop the samādhis? How do we become an ocean of learning? How do we correctly develop learning? How do we avoid being skeptical, being ambivalent, or entertaining doubts concerning the attainment of unsurpassed, complete awakening? How do we avoid being born within unfree states of existence? How do we attain the recollection of previous lives? How do we thirst for the expansive ocean of saṃsāric activity? How can we behold the buddhas and never become separated from this sight during all our lifetimes, even in dreams? How do we prevent evil Māra from finding and taking advantage of opportunities to hinder the virtuous Dharmas of the buddhas? How do we subdue pride? How do we obtain dhāraṇīs?
“How do we become skilled at analyzing the concealed intent of the Tathāgata’s speech? How do we enter the secret gateway of all phenomena? How do we correctly expound the Tathāgata’s treasury? How do we practice in the Tathāgata’s manner? How do we become a makara in the Tathāgata’s ocean? How do we enter the Tathāgata’s scriptural tradition?[F.124.b] How do we guard the secrets of the Tathāgata’s illusory emanation? How do we proclaim the Tathāgata’s speech? How do we join with the Tathāgata’s perception? How do we become the light rays of the Tathāgata’s sun? How do we attain the brilliance of the Tathāgata’s moon? How do we become the highest tip of the Tathāgata’s emblem? How do we hold the Tathāgata’s borders?
“How do we diligently undertake the Tathāgata’s activities? How do we become as potent as the Tathāgata? How do we become the white lotus of the Tathāgata, which brings certainty to non-Buddhists? How do we enjoy the Tathāgata’s joy? How do we become a treasurer of the Tathāgata’s storehouse? How do we see the Tathāgata’s permanence? How do we see the permanence and eternality of the Tathāgata with extreme clarity and become kings of praising his exalted character? How do we proclaim eternality, stating that ‘the Tathāgata’s body is eternal’? How do we perfect the view of great joy in the Tathāgata’s tranquil nature? How do we become an ocean of the view of all the aspects of the Tathāgata, saying that ‘the Tathāgata is permanent, eternal, constant, and tranquil’?
“How do we see the reality that ‘the Tathāgata’s body is the Dharma body’? How do we see the truth that ‘the Tathāgata’s vajra body is an immutable body’? How do we proclaim emptiness, stating that ‘the Tathāgata’s body is not a body of bone, flesh, blood, or muscle’? How do we proclaim the existence of fruition, stating that ‘in the Tathāgata’s Dharma teachings, fruition exists’? How do we proclaim nonexistence, stating that[F.125.a] ‘in the Tathāgata’s Dharma teachings, the extinction of fruition is nonexistent’? How do we clearly proclaim that ‘the Tathāgata never enters into parinirvāṇa’? How do we praise discipline, saying that ‘all sentient beings who follow the Tathāgata in going forth to renunciation have uncorrupted discipline’? How do we praise nondeclining, saying that ‘the Tathāgata’s Dharma teachings will not decline’? How do we perfect the view maintaining that ‘because there are no stains in the Tathāgata’s thoroughly pure family and lineage, bodhisattvas belong to the family lineage of skillful means’?
“How can we think that being forever in cyclic existence is pleasant? How can we praise cyclic existence? How do we become an ocean of learning to cycle within existence? How do we desire to perceive the tathāgata family? What do we think about being forever afflicted? How can we think being afflicted is pleasant? How do we attain faith in obtaining the various aspects of the gateways out of the afflictions? How do we plant in our minds the aspiration toward the field of all the buddhas’ activities? How do we see and properly secure the discovery that ‘the root of all karmic activity is affliction’? How do we refrain from being skeptical, being ambivalent, or entertaining doubts about the Buddha’s permanence? How can we exhibit joy in cyclic existence? How can we turn toward cyclic existence?
“How do we develop a frame of mind imbued with the lasting faith that ‘I will become a buddha’? How do we become a bodhisattva, a captain, who makes the aspiration and commitment, ‘I will turn the wheel of Dharma. I will liberate all sentient beings. I will not cut off ties with my buddha heritage’?[F.125.b] How do we become a doctor to Māra? How do we become a teacher of the ocean of afflictions of cyclic existence? How do we envision reaching the trading town of the afflictions of cyclic existence? How do we quench our thirst by obtaining the great ocean of cyclic existence? How can we thirst for cyclic existence? How can we develop a frame of mind that is dependent upon obtaining cyclic existence? How can we not abandon the attainment of cyclic existence? How can we blossom like a kingly lotus flower in the waters of cyclic existence? How do we become the four oceans of cyclic existence? How can we continuously plant in our minds the aspiration toward the afflictions of cyclic existence?
“How can we be joyful about going into the hell realms? How can we think of going to the hell realms and conduct ourselves by always directing our thoughts toward going to the hell realms? How do we become a merchant within the trading town of the hell realms? How can we not abandon the attainment of the hell realms? How do we extensively contemplate the fires of the hell realms? How can we become a pleasing and cooling wind for those beings who have become afflicted by the afflictions of the hell realms? How do we become a shower of rainfall from the great cloud that falls upon the fierce fires of the hell realms? How do we become hail within the hell realms? How do we become a teacher of the hell realms? How do we become a great ferryman in the ocean of the hell realms? How do we become a doctor of the hell realms? How do we become sustenance in the hell realms?
“How do we be like a torch that clears away the thick darkness of those who are seized by all the suffering and afflictions of cyclic existence? How do we be like an oil lamp that shines light on all beings within existence? How do we be like open space, which can never be obscured by the various fast-acting and malevolent afflictions of beings within cyclic existence? How do we not abide anywhere,[F.126.a] because the mind is equal to space? How can we be like the sun, dissolving afflictions as if melting away a snowbank, having followed the Tathāgata in going forth to renunciation and possessing discipline, strength, and gnosis? How do we attain the state in which one does not posit the ways of other schools, because one has correctly adopted the most excellent position? How do we become like the ocean through possessing oceans of gnosis? How can we be like the moon, thoroughly perfecting all positive qualities? How can we be like the sun, clearing away the darkness of ignorance? How can we be like open space when entering into and migrating within cyclic existence by engaging in the afflictions? How can we be unsullied like a lotus flower by manifesting the various realizations? How can we not abide anywhere given that the mind is equal to space? How can we be like a vajra that decisively cuts through all phenomena?
“How can we be like a vajra that definitively pierces through all phenomena? How can we be like a mountain, not wavering when hearing of the permanent, eternal, constant greatness of the Tathāgata’s virtuous qualities? How can we be like beryl because the gnosis of the family and lineage of the Tathāgata is completely pure? How can we be like a golden boulder within the poisonous ocean, clearing away the turbidity of the afflictions? How can we be like the moon, seeing the permanent, eternal, constant nature of the Tathāgata? How can we be like a mountain, not wavering from the Tathāgata’s Dharma? How can we be like a door frame, not wavering when hearing that the Tathāgata does not pass into parinirvāṇa and that the Dharma will not disappear?
“How can we see what is truly so, so that the mind abides steadily? How can we attain the mind that is incorruptible like a vajra? How can we abundantly obtain a great display of virtuous qualities? How can we become endowed with a sense of shame and modesty? How can we become beautiful? How can we become pleasing to behold? How can we be without craving?[F.126.b] How can we avoid attaining a weak body? How can we become endowed with the most excellent complexion? How can we be born within a noble family? How can we be born within a great family? How can we have a great retinue? How can we have a retinue that does not decline? How can we avoid turning back and never turn back from unsurpassed, complete, and perfect awakening? How can we not have craving for food? How can we completely abandon foods containing meat? How can we become intelligent? How can we delight and be well respected by all beings? How can we become mindful? How can we become charismatic? How can we become wise? How can we become joyful?
“How can we act in harmony with the world? How can we desire to benefit the world? How can we take pleasure in the world? How can we become prominent within the world? How can we become a leader within the world? How can we become supreme within the world? How can we become the utmost within the world? How can we become worthy of receiving homage from all worlds? How can we become a recipient of offerings from all worlds?
“How can we become a great donor? How can we become strong? How can we become a great hero? How can we become perseverant? How can we become loving and kind? How can we speak the truth? How can we become steadfast in our ascetic practice? How can we exercise perseverance? How can we remain full of loving-kindness? How can we remain compassionate? How can we remain joyful? How can we remain equanimous? How can we profess the emptiness of all empty phenomena?[F.127.a] How can we profess the nonemptiness of all nonempty phenomena? How can we profess the meaning and the reasoning behind the Buddha’s teachings? How can we profess the view of the Buddha’s teachings of reality?
“How can we become pure? How can we become rich with purity? How can we become rich with awakened qualities? How can we become rich with discipline? How can we become rich with Dharma? How can we become rich with goods that were not obtained by stealing? How can we become like a treasury for all poor beings and beggars? How can we not become fearful or panic stricken and never panic when it is taught that all phenomena are empty, signless, and wishless? How can we attain birth within whichever buddhafield we aspire to be born into? How do we refrain from seeking after gain, respect, and praise?
“How can we gather all those with lax discipline and establish them within the sacred Dharma? How can we be like a hailstorm among all those who possess lax discipline and devious minds? How can we cause all those who do not appreciate the Tathāgata’s kindness to develop proper appreciation? How can we become unassailable within the abodes of the non-Buddhist schools and, moreover, treat them with skillful means? How can we not be dug into a hole by the many arguments of ascetics, brahmins, and non-Buddhists and, moreover, rely on skillful means when dealing with them? How can we never take interest in the esoteric teachings of all the non-Buddhist schools and, moreover, arouse their interest through skillful means? How can we never dwell in the abodes of the gods, nāgas, yakṣas, and gandharvas and, moreover, truly support them with skillful means?
“How can we make sure to never rely upon auspicious and propitious signs that are karmically conditioned? How can we engage in taking life while abandoning taking life? How can we simultaneously partake of all sense pleasures—flower garlands, fragrances,[F.127.b] lotions, powders, the enjoyments of a householder, various types of servants, and a spouse—while still maintaining the purest conduct? How can we engage in all such activities as killing, stealing, lying, hankering after drink, and so forth, and keeping company with spouses and children, while still maintaining the purest conduct?
“How can we receive offerings from all the tathāgatas? How can we become honored by all the tathāgatas? How can we become well respected by all the tathāgatas? How can we become a beloved child of all the tathāgatas? How can we proceed with proper appreciation of all the tathāgatas’ kindness? How can we see the reality of phenomena, which is equivalent to the activity of all the tathāgatas?
“How can we attain the authentic understanding of gnosis that is the same as that of all the buddhas? How can we become crowned as the ruler of the land of the authoritative explanations of the manifold secret aspects of the doctrines of all buddhas? How can we express the manifold aspects of the secret Dharma teachings of all buddhas? How can we become skilled at abiding within the state of pride accepted by all the buddhas? How can we attain the jewel-like pure nature of the Dharma teachings of all the buddhas, with their manifold secret aspects—desirelessness, stainlessness, and fearlessness? How can we correctly see and engage in all the phenomena such as desire, anger, ignorance, and fear, through the power by which all the buddhas tame sentient beings? How can we see the suchness of all secrets, through which all the buddhas have attained liberation from the ocean of afflictions after passing through many millions of long eons? How can we display birth within the ocean of afflictions through the power by which all the buddhas tame sentient beings?[F.128.a] And, with the thought that ‘having crossed over, I will attain liberation; having attained liberation, I will liberate others,’ how can we see the pure nature of the special secret gateways that have been taught? How can we behold the reality of the secret ways by which all the buddhas, having passed beyond many millions of long eons, have vanquished millions of māras? How can we, through the power by which all the buddhas tame sentient beings, see well the contrivance, which appears as a natural display, of the special, secret gateway of subduing Māra at the base of the Bodhi tree?
“How can we turn the wheel of Dharma through skillful means? How can we see the reality of the contrivance wherein, through skillful means, it appears that one passes into parinirvāṇa? How can we become the supreme king of the secret display of all the buddhas? How can we become the king who enumerates the inconceivable, unparalleled, incomparable, countless, limitless, innumerable domains of all the buddhas? Which bodhisattva discourse contains such teachings?”
Then, having been entreated in this fashion, the Bhagavān replied to the bodhisattva Great Cloud Essence, “Great Cloud Essence, excellent, excellent! Great Cloud Essence, to benefit and comfort all sentient beings, and for the welfare of all blind sentient beings, you have uttered these well-spoken words for the sake of attaining the greatness of qualities that is praised by all the tathāgatas. You have spoken for the sake of the eye of gnosis that knows reality. You have spoken for the sake of always seeing truly. You have spoken for the sake of crossing to the other shore of the ocean of the afflictions of cyclic existence. You have spoken for the sake of fully understanding the bodhisattva conduct of all tathāgatas. You have spoken for the sake of breaking open the eggshell of the afflictions of the ocean of cyclic existence and then, having correctly trained in the bodhisattva conduct, skillfully reentering the eggshell of the afflictions of the ocean of cyclic existence.
“You have spoken for the sake of causing all sentient beings who praise[F.128.b] impermanence, emptiness, parinirvāṇa, and selflessness to gain abiding confidence in the greatness of the qualities of the buddha—the essential nature of parinirvāṇa as permanent, eternal, constant, and tranquil. You have spoken for the sake of causing all sentient beings who claim that the Dharma will disappear to gain the completely pure eye that sees the steadfast nature of the sacred Dharma. You have spoken for the sake of performing great healing techniques on all sentient beings who have been struck by the poison of wrong views regarding all the forms of the godly abodes, by treating them with purgative and cleansing medicines. You have spoken for the sake of assuming the role of a great doctor skilled in the harm-dispelling medicine of the yogic techniques of secret mantra, uttering the correct knowledge mantras, and raising up the water-filled consecration vase for all sentient beings whose minds are thoroughly clouded and confused regarding the concealed intent of the tathāgata’s words.
“You have spoken for the sake of not revealing a view that is impermanent, unworthy, and not divine, in order to extract the poisoned arrow of affliction from those sentient beings such as the carakas, wanderers, nirgranthas, and others, who have been struck by the poison of grasping at unworthy divine forms as having a nature that is permanent and worthy and thus profess their permanence and worthiness. You have spoken for the sake of purifying away those views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of liberating others from being bound by those views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of causing others to purge and cleanse themselves of the causes of the illness of the views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of lancing the tumors caused by the poison of the views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine. You have spoken for the sake of cutting out the fleshy growths that have completely obscured the eyesight of others who have been poisoned by the views that are impermanent, unworthy, and not divine.
“You have spoken for the sake of correctly revealing the entry point into the timely emanation of all the tathāgatas as well as into the domain of activity, the heritage, the marks, the fields,[F.129.a] the knowledge of reality, the taste, the delicious sustenance, the devotion to cause happiness, the pleasing and worthy bed of great qualities, the drinks, the ablutions, the incense, the flower garlands, the application of colored powders, the supremely and extremely fine garments, and the adornment of all the tathāgatas. You have spoken for the sake of correctly teaching that the Tathāgata’s body is the Dharma body. For these purposes, these words of yours were excellently spoken. Excellent!
“The Tathāgata’s body possesses the most profound characteristics, yet it does not have a single characteristic. It is not without something to characterize, yet the thing characterized is not apparent. It is not something to be realized, yet it is not not something to be realized. It is not on this side and it is not on the other side, yet it is not in between. It is not an origin, yet it is not without an origin. It is not here, yet it is not there. It is not permanent, yet it is not impermanent. It cannot be validated, yet it cannot be invalidated. It is not benighted, yet it is not not benighted. It is not little, yet it is not not little. It is not lightweight, yet it is not not lightweight. It is not cognizable, yet it is not uncognizable. It is not known by consciousness, yet it is not not known by consciousness. It is not abiding, yet it is not nonabiding. It is not obscured, yet it is not illuminated. It is not a name, nor is it a sign. It is not weak, nor is it strong. It does not abide in any place, nor does it abide in any direction. It is not virtuous, yet it is not unvirtuous. It is not conditioned, yet it is not unconditioned.
“It cannot be described as ‘It exists in such-and-such a place.’ It cannot be offered, nor can it be taken. It is not describable in words, yet it is not indescribable in words.[F.129.b] It is not true, yet it is not false. It is not true reality itself, yet it is not a metaphysical view. It is not emancipated from cyclic existence, yet it is not not emancipated. It is not a field, yet it is not not a field. It is not temporal, yet it is not atemporal. It cannot be undertaken, yet it cannot not be undertaken. It is not clean, yet it is not unclean. It is not made, yet it is not unmade. It is not produced, yet it does not cease. It is at peace, deeply at peace, fully at peace. It is not the elements, it is not the aggregates, and it is not the sense bases. It is not produced by the elements, it is not produced by the aggregates, and it is not produced by the sense bases. It does not arise from causes of affliction, and it does not arise from causes of karma. It is not accumulated, yet it is not unaccumulated.
“Without transmigrating after death, it transmigrates after death. It is boundless. It goes without going. It lends assistance. It has no outer limits. It has no shifting. Its nature does not abide in the present. Its nature of suchness, which has no form, no feeling, no cognition, no conceptual formations, and no consciousness, is inexhaustible. It is incapable of being exhausted. It is free from exhaustion. It is unequaled. It is equal to the unequaled. It is not consciousness. It is has truly passed beyond the four elements. It has reached the consummation of nonattachment to all phenomena. It is equal to the unlimited suchness that is the ultimate limit of reality. Thus, the Tathāgata’s body is endowed with unfathomable, incalculable qualities.
“The characteristics of the Tathāgata’s prolific speech are like this: his subtle words are extremely difficult to understand, extremely skillful, and extremely profound. All outsiders, as well as śrāvakas and[F.130.a] pratyekabuddhas, have not heard his previous speeches—not even a single word. They have been rendered blind and full of poison, crippled and infirm, covered up by the eggshell of worldly existence, shipwrecked, and completely incapacitated by the poisoned arrow of affliction.
“The Tathāgata’s prolific speech is for the sake of extracting the poisoned arrow of affliction, raising up the water-filled consecration vase, and proclaiming the correct knowledge mantras, secret mantras, and the yogic techniques that cause purging and cleansing—the great techniques that heal all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, as well as all sentient beings, who have been rendered unconscious and delirious by illnesses of bile. It is for the sake of stopping the phlegm and bile regarding the term parinirvāṇa from entering their hearts. It is for the sake of completely purifying their bellies. It is for the sake of lancing their poisonous tumors. It is for the sake of causing those who, like moths and ants, have been struck by poison and died, to gain total knowledge. It is for the sake of shining the lamplight of the gnosis of the Tathāgata’s permanence, eternality, constancy, and tranquility. It is for the sake of bringing forth the moon rays and sun rays of the knowledge of the reality of the Tathāgata’s permanence, eternality, constancy, and tranquility. It is for the sake of increasing the permanent eye of wisdom.
“It is for the sake of bringing about the attainment of unparalleled conduct. It is for the sake of exhibiting the substance of dhāraṇī and samādhi. It is for the sake of engendering the attainment of the exalted jewel of the scriptural tradition of the tathāgatas. It is for the sake of generating an excellent vision of the authentic mirror-like domain of the Tathāgata’s body. It is for the sake of breaking open the eggshell of ignorance of thinking that ‘the Tathāgata has completely passed into parinirvāṇa.’ It is for the sake of building a boat for those sentient beings who are shipwrecked in the great ocean of ignorance, thinking that ‘the Tathāgata’s teachings will disappear.’ It is for the sake of upholding the great healing technique and extracting the arrow of the view of those who have been struck by the poison of the thought that ‘the Tathāgata is impermanent, not eternal, not constant, and not at peace.’[F.130.b]
“In order to ease the jaundice caused by the complete confusion and thorough ignorance of thinking that ‘the Tathāgata is not eternal, not tranquil, not constant, and not permanent,’ all the tathāgatas together display their prolific speech by variously performing the conduct of teaching the secret Dharma of inconceivable complete liberation; through these various sorts of conduct, they manifestly abide and correctly engage in prolific speech. The words of their prolific speech, having such subtle characteristics, are extremely difficult to understand, extremely skilled, and adorned with extreme profundity.
Such views comprise one element of Buddha-nature theory associated with the Buddha’s “third turning of the wheel of Dharma” (see below), but also stem from the theory of the emanation body (nirmāṇakāya, sprul pa’i sku) that may have first developed in non-Mahāyāna schools. They have been compared by scholars in the modern era to similar views about Jesus Christ in docetism, a second century belief rejected as heretical by the early Church councils. On “docetic Buddhism” see Anesaki (1911), Seyfort-Ruegg (2008) pp. 31–34, and Radich (2015).
See Brunnhölzl 2014, p. 4ff; however, in his paragraph on the sūtra on p. 46 he does not note the presence in it of the themes just mentioned.
Suzuki (1996) has suggested that The Great Cloud may in fact be the source of the interpolated passage in the Suvarṇaprabhāsa.
See Robert A. F. Thurman, trans., The Teaching of Vimalakīrti (Vimalakīrtinirdeśasūtra), Toh 176 (84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2017).
“Fiery intersection” is a tentative rendering of me’i lam gyi gzhi mdo, the sense of which is not clear in this context.
Tib. thog tog, corresponding possibly to Skt. aśani, is translated here and throughout as “hail” following Ch. 雹.
Tib. rgya mtsho’i dus tshod, literally the “seasons of the ocean,” which likely renders Skt. samudra-velā, has been translated as “ocean tide” following Ch. 海潮.
Both the Tib. and Ch. refer to ten Dharma gateways in this chapter, although in both versions the chapter contains only eight.
Tib. slob dpon lung ston pa, likely rendering Skt. ācāryavyākaraṇa. A grammarian named Kauṇḍinya is mentioned in the Taittirīya Prātiśākhya.
Ch. provides a much more detailed explanation here: “[He claims that] for those who give to charity, there will be no fruition, and the virtue that one cultivates will also not bring accomplishment; thus [his views] are no different from the nirgranthas. The irgranthas say that there is no appropriation and no giving, and Devadatta is also like this.”
Ch. says the opposite: “this question, which all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas would be incapable of asking.”
Ch. says the opposite here: “Such followers, difficult to fathom, do not belong to the domain of śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas.”
Ch. provides more detail here: “Great brahmin, the mahāsattva Yellow Head (Kapila), who is often praised by the Bhagavān Tathāgata, is none other than the bhikṣu Devadatta. The group of six monks are also great bodhisattvas who accompany Devadatta. How could you say that they are people [destined for] the hell realms?”
Ch. says the opposite: “Those monks … who are capable of understanding the merit of Devadatta should undoubtedly be known as true disciples of the Buddha—they have attained one half of the Buddha’s merit; they have attained one eye of buddhahood; they have attained one half of the Buddha’s body.”
Ch.: “If a water leech / Suddenly grew a white tooth / That was as large as an elephant’s tusk, / Then a relic could be obtained.”
Here and below are a number of references to dge slong ’dod or dge slong ’dod pa—the desiring monk. Further below, we find dge slong dam pa’i chos ’dod pa—the monk who desires the sacred Dharma. The corresponding Ch. terms are 持法比丘 (“the bhikṣu who upholds the Dharma”) and 持法者 (“the one who upholds the Dharma”).
Michael Radich has suggested that Joyful Conduct (bde spyod) could be a rendition of Udayana. See Radich 2015, p. 72n164.
Radich has suggested that this is *Sarvalokapriyadarśana, a figure who appears in several related discourses. See Radich 2015, pp. 199–202.
According to the Abhidharma, time passes differently in the different realms of existence. For example, for devaputras who reside in the desire realm, one day is the equivalent of fifty or a hundred human years.
Note that the term used here is chos kyi lus not chos kyi sku; the Tibetan honorific sku is reserved for realized beings (buddhas) and is not used for bodhisattvas who are still on the path to buddhahood.
The term “samādhi” is added for clarification here and in parallel statements to follow that have only the demonstrative pronoun ’di (“this”).
Note that the translation says “are the real,” but the explanation to follow specifies that the analogies are only pointers to what is real.
This simile also appears in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra (Toh 120), except in that text, the jewel is beryl (vaiḍūrya).
Ch.: “Goddess! It is not that I do not see phenomena as dreamlike. However, I ask in order to cut off others’ grasping at signs.” The goddess’s response is the same.
The previous question is not answered here. However, in Ch., the Buddha answers the previous question before moving on to the discussion of emanated bodies: “Excellent, excellent, noble son! Truly, it is as the goddess has said. Bodhisattva mahāsattvas who abide in this samādhi only see signlessness. Noble son, if men or women wish to see signlessness, they should be diligent in cultivating this samādhi.”
The word “bodhisattvas” is added for clarification here and in parallel passages to follow.
This is the highly controversial passage that was alluded to in the introduction. The Ch. translation, which was made in the fifth century
A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A world system in the southern direction.
A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A river in the town of Great Sands in the future.
The daughter of the king Increasing Majesty
The name of a Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (moha). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,” “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
The five psycho-physical constituents of an individual, which are collectively taken as a “self.”
Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.
A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A world system in the southern direction.
The buddha of the western buddhafield of Sukhāvatī, where fortunate beings are reborn to make further progress toward spiritual maturity. Amitābha made his great vows to create such a realm when he was a bodhisattva called Dharmākara. In the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, popular in East Asia, aspiring to be reborn in his buddha realm is the main emphasis; in other Mahāyāna traditions, too, it is a widespread practice. For a detailed description of the realm, see The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī, Toh 115. In some tantras that make reference to the five families he is the tathāgata associated with the lotus family.
Amitābha, “Infinite Light,” is also known in many Indian Buddhist works as Amitāyus, “Infinite Life.” In both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions he is often conflated with another buddha named “Infinite Life,” Aparimitāyus, or “Infinite Life and Wisdom,”Aparimitāyurjñāna, the shorter version of whose name has also been back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit as Amitāyus but who presides over a realm in the zenith. For details on the relation between these buddhas and their names, see The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1) Toh 674, i.9.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A class of nonhuman beings, usually female, known for their beauty.
The ancient Indian army was composed of four branches (caturaṅga)—infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.
A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
The historical Indian king of the Maurya dynasty who ruled over most of India c. 268–232 ʙᴄᴇ. His name means “without sorrow.”
A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A class or powerful nonhuman beings, sometimes called demigods, who are often portrayed as the enemies of the devas. One of the six classes of beings.
This stock phrase refers to states of peace or absence of disturbing thoughts and emotions. In his commentary on the Kāśyapaparivarta, Sthiramati correlates these three states of peace with deepening stages of meditation on the Buddhist path.
A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A land in the southern region in the future.
A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A country in the southern region in the distant future.
A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity.
In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).
The term bhikṣuṇī, often translated as “nun,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term bhikṣu (to which the female grammatical ending ṇī is added) literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist nuns and monks—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a bhikṣuṇī follows 364 rules and a bhikṣu follows 253 rules as part of their moral discipline.
For the first few years of the Buddha’s teachings in India, there was no ordination for women. It started at the persistent request and display of determination of Mahāprajāpatī, the Buddha’s stepmother and aunt, together with five hundred former wives of men of Kapilavastu, who had themselves become monks. Mahāprajāpatī is thus considered to be the founder of the nun’s order.
This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.
An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
A preta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
The buddhafield of the buddha Amitābha.
A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.
A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).
sprin chen po’i mdo (Mahāmeghasūtra). Toh 232, Degé Kangyur vol. 64 (mdo sde, wa), folios 113.a–214.b.
dri med grags pa’i bstan (Vimalakīrtinirdeśa). Toh 176, Degé Kangyur vol. 60 (mdo sde, ma), folios 175.a–239.a. English translation in Thurman 2017.
yongs su mya ngan las ’das pa chen po (Mahāparinirvāṇa). Toh 120, Degé Kangyur vol. 54 (mdo sde, tha), folios 1.b–151.b.
gser ’od dam pa mdo sde’i dbang po’i rgyal po (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarāja). Toh 556, Degé Kangyur vol. 89 (rgyud, pa), folios 151.b–273.a; Toh 557, vol. 90 (rgyud, pha), folios 1.b–62.a. English translations in Roberts 2024ab.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan[/lhan] dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Phangthangma (dkar chag ’phang thang ma). Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003.
Anesaki, Masaharu. “Docetism (Buddhist).” In Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by J. Hastings, 835–40. (Available on Internet Archive). Edinburgh: Clark, 1911.
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Forte, Antonino. Political Propaganda and Ideology in China at the End of the Seventh Century: Inquiry into the Nature, Authors, and Function of the Tunhuang Document S. 6502 Followed by an Annotated Translation. Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, Seminario di Studi Asiatici, 1976.
Radich, Michael. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-mahāsūtra and the Emergence of Tathāgatagarbha Doctrine. Hamburg Buddhist Studies 5. Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, 2015.
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Roberts, Peter Alan., trans. (2024a). The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (2) (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtra, Toh 556). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2024.
Roberts, Peter Alan., trans. (2024b). The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (3) (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtra, Toh 557). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2024.
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Seyfort-Ruegg, David (2017). “Problems of Attribution, Style, and Dating Relating to the ‘Great Cloud Sutras’ in the Chinese Buddhist Canon (T 387, T 388/S. 6916).” In Buddhist Transformations and Interactions: Essays in Honor of Antonino Forte, edited by Victor H. Mair, 235–89. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2017.
Suzuki Takayasu. “The Mahāmeghasūtra as an Origin of an Interpolated Part of the Present Suvarṇaprabhāsa.” Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 45, no. 1 (1996): 28–30.
Thurman, Robert A. F., trans. The Teaching of Vimalakīrti (Vimalakīrtinirdeśa, Toh 176). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2017.
Ye Shaoyong (2023a). “Phun tshogs Tshe brtan, Dngos grub Tshe ring: A Preliminary Report on the ‘Burnt Manuscripts’ from Retreng Monastery; Bundle A.” In Śāntamatiḥ: Manuscripts for Life; Essays in Memory of Seishi Karashima, edited by Noriyuki Kudo, 447–65. Tokyo: International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, 2023.
Ye Shaoyong (2023b). “The Prophecy about Nāgārjuna in the Mahāmeghasūtra: A Perspective Based on the Sanskrit Manuscript Preserved in the Potala Palace.” Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 71, no. 3 (2023): 62–67.
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