In this sūtra, the Buddha Śākyamuni and a number of the bodhisattvas, elders, and gods in his assembly engage in a lively exchange clarifying many key points of the Dharma from the perspective of the Mahāyāna, including the four truths, the origin of saṃsāra, and the identity of the buddhas, while praising the qualities of the paragons of the Mahāyāna, the bodhisattvas.
This text was translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Gyurmé Avertin translated the text from Tibetan into English. Andreas Doctor compared the translation against the original Tibetan and edited the translation. The Dharmachakra Translation Committee would like to thank Khenchen Pema Sherab for his generous assistance with the resolution of several difficult passages.
The generous sponsorship of Zhou Tian Yu, Chen Yi Qin, Zhou Xun, and Zhao Xuan, which helped make the work on this translation possible, is most gratefully acknowledged.
The Questions of Brahmaviśeṣacintin is an important Mahāyāna sūtra that enjoyed significant popularity in Buddhist India, China, and Tibet over the centuries. The setting for this teaching is the Veṇuvana on the outskirts of Rājagṛha, the capital city in the kingdom of Magadha. The teaching itself takes the form of a lively discussion between the Buddha and several bodhisattvas, such as Brahmaviśeṣacintin, Jālinīprabha, and Mañjuśrī, as well as elders, such as Śāriputra and Mahākāśyapa, and even various gods who attend the teaching. This sūtra blends practical and theoretical strands of Mahāyāna and emphasizes how bodhisattvas should practice the Dharma—a training that transcends both the mundane and the supramundane. Indeed, although this sūtra stresses the importance of “donning the armor of diligence,” this practice must unfold within the context of the view of emptiness. The bodhisattva is therefore directed to make every effort to help all beings, while realizing that ultimately there is no action, no actor, and no beneficiary. As with many Mahāyāna sūtras, this text does not aim at a systematic presentation of doctrine,1 but rather at evoking the nature and scope of awakening by means of pertinent conversations and illustrations. The text presents many well-known Dharma topics, including the four truths, the six perfections, and the Three Jewels, all from a Mahāyāna perspective that emphasizes the view of emptiness.
No Sanskrit manuscript of The Questions of Brahmaviśeṣacintin appears to have survived. In addition to the Tibetan translation, the text is also extant in three Chinese translations by Dharmarakṣa (Taishō 585), Kumārajīva (Taishō 586), and Bodhiruci (Taishō 587). The oldest Chinese translation is that by Dharmarakṣa, which is dated as early as 286
The Tibetan translation, which we have rendered into English here, was completed several centuries later during the early translation period of the ninth century, when most Mahāyāna sūtras were translated in Tibet. This dating may be inferred from the text’s inclusion in the Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) imperial inventory of early Tibetan translations, which is dated to c. 812
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was dwelling in Veṇuvana, at the Kalandakanivāpa, near Rājagṛha, together with a large saṅgha of sixty-four thousand monks and seventy-two thousand bodhisattvas. They were all clairvoyant, having the superknowledges. All of them had attained recollection, had unflinching confidence, had mastered absorption, enjoyed the superknowledges, were endowed with fearless eloquence, were proficient in the teachings on the essence of all things, and had attained acceptance that phenomena are unborn. Among them were youthful Mañjuśrī, youthful Ratnapāṇi, youthful Ratnamudrāhasta, youthful Ratnaśrī, youthful Gaganagañja, youthful Sahacittotpādadharmacakrapravartin, youthful Jālinīprabha, youthful Vijṛmbhita, youthful Śrīgarbha, youthful Sarvasvaparityāgin, youthful Padmavyūha, youthful Siṃha, youthful Candraprabha, youthful Candraraśmiprabha, youthful Agramati, and youthful Svālaṃkāravyūha. Present also were the sixteen5 holy beings Bhadrapāla, Ratnākara, Susārthavāha, Naradatta, Guhagupta, Varuṇadatta, Indradatta, Uttaramati, Viśeṣamati, Vardhamānamati, Amoghadarśin,[F.23.b] Susaṃprasthita, Suvikrāntavikrāmin, Anantamati, Anikṣiptadhura, Sūryagarbha, and Dharaṇīṃdhara, along with other such beings among seventy-two thousand bodhisattvas. There were also the Four Great Kings, the gods of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, such as Śakra, lord of the gods, and the gods of the Heaven Free from Strife,6 the Heaven of Joy, the Heaven of Delighting in Emanations, and the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations, as well as a hundred thousand gods of the Brahmā realm, including Brahmā. There were also other humans and nonhuman beings, including various fantastic gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, and mahoragas, who had all gathered together. Amid this assembly of hundreds of thousands of different disciples, the Blessed One was teaching the Dharma.
The bodhisattva youthful Jālinīprabha draped his shawl over one shoulder and knelt on his right knee. With his palms together, he bowed toward the Blessed One. He then shook the worlds in the trichiliocosm and, considering all the beings there, asked the Blessed One, “If I were to ask a question, would the Blessed One offer me an explanation? Could I ask a small question of the blessed, thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha?”
“Jālinīprabha,” replied the Blessed One, “You may ask the Thus-Gone One whatever you please. Then I shall delight your mind by answering your question.”[F.24.a]
The bodhisattva Jālinīprabha then addressed the Blessed One, “When I observe the captivating body of the Blessed One, I see that it is brighter than one septillion suns. Blessed One, to be able to observe or examine the Thus-Gone One’s body is extraordinary. Furthermore, Blessed One, does the ability to observe the body of the Thus-Gone One or to examine it come from the power of the buddhas?”
“Jālinīprabha,” the Blessed One replied, “it is just as you have said. Beings are able to observe or examine the Thus-Gone One’s body only when the Thus-Gone One allows it. You may ask why, Jālinīprabha, thus-gone ones emanate rays of light called unfolding of peace. Sentient beings touched by these light rays are able to observe and examine the body of thus-gone ones with no impairment to their eye faculty. Jālinīprabha, thus-gone ones have rays of light called fearless eloquence. Sentient beings touched by these light rays ask questions of the thus-gone ones, and reply to questions with questions. Jālinīprabha, thus-gone ones have rays of light called accumulation of virtuous roots. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones in order to obtain the kingdom of a universal monarch. Likewise, thus-gone ones have rays of light called unfolding of virtue. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones in order to become like Śakra. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called boon of sovereignty. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones in order to be reborn in the world of Brahmā. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called free of emotional defilements. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones about the hearers’ vehicle. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called one-pointed in solitude.[F.24.b] Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones about the solitary buddhas’ vehicle. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called bestowal of empowerment into the wisdom of omniscience. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones about the Great Vehicle of buddhahood. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called special conveyance. Sentient beings touched by these light rays are able to touch the soles of a thus-gone one’s feet as he comes and goes. All such beings will have happy rebirths in higher realms as soon as they die. They have rays of light called array of all ornaments. When thus-gone ones go to a town, they emanate these light rays, and all sentient beings touched by this light of the thus-gone ones gain supreme happiness. And a display of all types of ornaments also adorns the town.
“The thus-gone ones’ rays of light called shaker move infinite, limitless world systems. The rays of light called revealer of happiness eliminate the suffering that hell beings normally endure. The rays of light called sublime love guard beings born in the animal realm from eating one another. The rays of light called refreshment remove the suffering that beings normally endure in the world of Yama. The rays of light called stainless give sight to blind beings. The rays of light called hearing give hearing to deaf beings. The rays of light called abandonment lead beings who follow the path of the ten types of negative actions onto the path of the ten positive actions. The rays of light called modesty grant mindfulness to intoxicated beings.[F.25.a] The rays of light called disappearance bring beings with wrong views to acquire the right view. The rays of light called giving make stingy beings generous. The rays of light called absence of torment lead ill-natured beings to discipline. The rays of light called beneficial grant forbearance and gentleness to beings with harmful intentions. The rays of light called blazing inspire lazy beings with diligence. The rays of light called focus give concentration to beings with weak mindfulness. The rays of light called wisdom give insight to beings with faulty insight. The rays of light called immaculate inspire faith in beings bereft of it. The rays of light called retention expose uneducated beings to the teachings. The rays of light called politeness instill modesty and propriety in shameless and reckless beings. The rays of light called weariness lead beings who act out of desire to overcome their desire. The rays of light called joy make beings who act out of aversion overcome their aversion. The rays of light called clarity lead ignorant beings to understand dependent origination. The rays of light called ubiquitous make beings who act out of an equal measure of the three poisons abandon this way of acting.
“Jālinīprabha, the thus-gone ones also have rays of light called revealing all forms. Beings touched by these light rays can clearly see the thus-gone ones’ bodies in many hundreds of thousands of colors.[F.25.b] Jālinīprabha, if I began to speak about the light rays of the thus-gone ones, I could not complete an explanation about the features of the light rays of the thus-gone ones even if I were to speak for an eon, or even longer. In this way, the thus-gone, worthy, and perfect buddhas have rays of light with infinite and limitless qualities.”
The bodhisattva Jālinīprabha replied to the Blessed One, “Blessed One, it is wonderful that you explain in this way the immeasurable array of the thus-gone ones’ physical features, and that you grant such Dharma teachings with inconceivable skillful means. Blessed One, we have never before heard about these light rays of the buddhas. By my understanding of what the Blessed One has taught, any bodhisattva who acquires faith upon hearing the names of these light rays will gain the power to illuminate with such light rays of the perfect buddhas. Now, Blessed One, please send forth those rays of light by which the Thus-Gone One invites bodhisattvas from other buddha realms to come at once to this Enduring world system. In that way, those bodhisattvas who have reached the culmination of the process of question, answer, and further explanation may come here to confer with the Thus-Gone One, pay their respects to him, and receive further clarification. Please send the light called invitation to the bodhisattvas.”
The Blessed One then issued from his body light rays that illuminate inconceivable, limitless world systems. As soon as the light had invoked the bodhisattvas,[F.26.a] they flocked into this Enduring world system.
To the east of this buddha realm, past as many hundreds of thousands of buddha realms as there are grains of sand in seventy-two Ganges rivers, there lies a buddha realm called Pariśuddha. There at present resides the thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha Candraprabha, alive and well. In that buddha realm he also explains the Dharma, teaching exclusively to bodhisattvas. One of them is a bodhisattva great being irreversible from the path to awakening called Brahmaviśeṣacintin who, as soon as the light touched him, went before the blessed Thus-Gone One Candraprabha. He prostrated to the feet of that blessed one before asking, “Blessed One, what is the cause and what is the condition for such great light to appear in the world?”
That blessed one replied, “Brahmā, to the west of this buddha realm, past as many hundreds of thousands of buddha realms as there are grains of sand in seventy-two Ganges rivers, there is a realm called Enduring, where the thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha Śākyamuni at present resides. Alive and well, he is teaching the Dharma. That thus-gone one has emanated this light from his body to invite the bodhisattvas of the ten directions.”
Then Brahmaviśeṣacintin said to the Blessed One, “Since that blessed, thus-gone one wants to see me, I shall go to the world system called Enduring and see the Blessed One Śākyamuni, prostrate to him, pay homage to him, question him,[F.26.b] and seek clarification from him.”
The Blessed One said, “Brahmā, now millions of bodhisattvas in great number are converging in the Enduring world system. So you should go if you think this is the right time. Brahmā, when you are in this buddha realm, you should abide by ten resolves, which are:
1. Harbor no anger, whether you hear pleasant or negative words.
2. Be loving, whether you hear pleasant or negative words.
3. Have compassion for beings at all times.
4. Care for good and middling as well as lesser beings.
5. Make no distinction when people worship you or disrespect you.
6. Do not look down on others who have faults and are confused.
7. Consider the various vehicles to be of one taste.
8. Do not be afraid when hearing about the suffering in the lower realms.
9. Consider all bodhisattvas as your teachers.
10. Understand the rarity of seeing a thus-gone one in a realm afflicted by the five degenerations.
“Brahmā, as you stay in that buddha realm, abide by these ten resolves.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin said to the Blessed One, “I am not suitable to speak with a lion’s roar in front of you, Blessed One. Still, the Blessed One clearly knows what I do. Therefore, Blessed One, I will stay in that buddha realm, training and abiding by those ten resolves.”
Other bodhisattvas of the buddha realm of the blessed, thus-gone Candraprabha said to the Thus-Gone One, “Blessed One, it is fortunate that we were not born in that buddha realm, where uncouth beings congregate.”[F.27.a]
The Blessed One replied, “Noble sons, do not say that. Why not? Noble sons, compared to practicing pure conduct for one hundred thousand eons here in this buddha realm, it is much better to remain without anger for one morning in that Enduring world system. This is because, in that world system, there are so many more emotional defilements, so much more harm, and so much more defilement.”
At that point, twelve thousand bodhisattvas from that buddha realm departed with Brahmaviśeṣacintin. They said, “Brahmā, we are also going to the Enduring world system to train in these resolves, to see the Blessed One Śākyamuni, to prostrate before him, and to pay homage to him. Through the different states of equipoise, we shall abide in that buddha realm.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin and the twelve thousand bodhisattvas prostrated to the feet of the blessed, thus-gone Candraprabha, and then disappeared from their buddha realm and went to the buddha realm of the blessed, thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha Śākyamuni, in the time it takes a strong man to bend a straightened arm or to straighten a bent arm.
At that point, the Blessed One asked the bodhisattva Jālinīprabha, “Jālinīprabha, did you witness the arrival of Brahmaviśeṣacintin?”
“I saw him, Blessed One.”
The Blessed One then said, “Jālinīprabha, Brahmaviśeṣacintin is foremost among the bodhisattvas skilled[F.27.b] in asking questions correctly and thoroughly. He is foremost among those who use appropriate words. He is foremost in terms of speaking the truth. He is foremost among those who speak kindly. He is the foremost in sincere speech. He is foremost among respectful speakers. He is foremost among those whose use of words is unconstrained. He is foremost in formulating the indirect teachings. He is foremost among those who are free of anger. He is foremost among those who are loving. He is foremost among the compassionate. He is foremost among the joyful. He is foremost among those who have equanimity. He is also foremost among all bodhisattvas who have eliminated every doubt and know how to pose questions.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin, together with the twelve thousand bodhisattvas, now went before the Blessed One. They paid homage by prostrating to the feet of the Blessed One and circumambulated him three times. Then they bowed to the Blessed One with palms joined and praised the Blessed One in many respects through these verses:
Having addressed these verses to the Blessed One, Brahmaviśeṣacintin then asked him, “Blessed One, how do bodhisattvas firmly maintain their resolve without becoming disheartened? Blessed One, how do bodhisattvas speak with certainty while never hurting others with their words? How do they increase their roots of virtue? How are they not corrupted, and how is their conduct not errant? How do they increase virtuous qualities?[F.29.a] How do they progress from level to level? How do they skillfully mature beings? How do they master being of service to beings? How do they guard the mind of awakening? How do they focus their minds one-pointedly and not become distracted? How is it that they are skilled in searching for the Dharma? How is it that they are skilled at escaping downfalls? How is it that they are skilled at taming emotional defilements? How is it that they are skilled at being surrounded by an assembly? How is it that they are skilled at presenting the Dharma? How is it that they have the strength of past causes, and therefore do not exhaust their roots of virtue? How is it that they can practice the perfections, from generosity to insight, without being taught? How is it that they are skilled in turning away from the blissful states of concentration? How is it that they will never be deprived of buddha qualities? How is it that they will never sever the buddhas’ lineage?”
The Blessed One replied to Brahmaviśeṣacintin, “Excellent! Excellent, Brahmā! Brahmā, your motivation for asking the Thus-Gone One about such topics is excellent. Therefore, Brahmā, listen with the greatest care, and keep this in mind. I shall explain.”
“Very well, Blessed One” replied Brahmaviśeṣacintin, and he listened to the Blessed One with full attention.
The Blessed One then said, “Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they have a firm resolve and do not become disheartened. The four qualities are compassion for others,[F.29.b] indefatigable diligence, seeing saṃsāra as a dream, and considering the buddhas’ wisdom to be unparalleled. So, Brahmā, bodhisattva great beings endowed with these four qualities have a firm resolve and do not become disheartened.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they speak with certainty and never hurt others with their words. The four qualities are that bodhisattvas declare with certainty that no phenomenon has an individual self, bodhisattvas declare with certainty that all places of birth are bereft of joy, bodhisattvas declare with certainty their praise of the Great Vehicle, and bodhisattvas declare with certainty that the effects of positive and negative actions are never lost. Brahmā, these are the four declarations of certainty of bodhisattva great beings.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they increase their roots of virtue. The four qualities are discipline, learning, generosity, and renunciation.
“Brahmā, bodhisattva great beings are not corrupted and avoid errant conduct when they are unaffected by these four circumstances: loss, criticism, anonymity, and suffering. Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are impervious to these four circumstances, they are not corrupted and avoid errant conduct.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they increase their roots of virtue. The four qualities are leading beings to awakening, giving without expectations of any reward, upholding the sacred Dharma,[F.30.a] and teaching insight to bodhisattvas.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they progress from level to level. The four qualities are that they accumulate roots of virtue, they avoid all negativities, they are skilled at dedication, and they have intense diligence.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they skillfully mature beings. The four qualities are that they act in accordance with beings, they rejoice in the merit of others, they confess negativity, and they supplicate all the buddhas.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they know how to be of service to others. The four qualities are assisting all beings, being unconcerned with their own happiness, being patient and gentle, and having eliminated pride.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they do not squander the mind of awakening. The four qualities are remembering the buddhas, preceding all roots of virtue with the mind of awakening, relying on spiritual friends, and praising the Great Vehicle.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, their minds are focused one-pointedly, and they do not get carried away. The four qualities are that they have abandoned the motivation of the hearers, they have renounced the mindset of solitary buddhas, they search for the Dharma insatiably, and they teach the Dharma as they have heard it.
“Brahmā,[F.30.b] when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they search for the Dharma. The four qualities are that they consider the Dharma as a jewel because it is so difficult to find, they consider the Dharma as a medicine because it cures all ailments, they consider the Dharma as a boon because it cannot be lost, and they consider the Dharma as the pacification of all suffering because it takes beings beyond suffering.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they are skilled at escaping downfalls. The four qualities are an inner acceptance that phenomena are not born, an inner acceptance that phenomena do not cease because they are not transferred, an inner acceptance of dependent arising by analyzing causes, and an inner acceptance of the changing nature of the mind from one moment to the next.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they purify emotional defilements. The four qualities are that they analyze things correctly, they pledge to maintain discipline in the future, they generate the power of virtuous qualities, and they dwell in solitude.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they are skilled at being surrounded by an assembly. The four qualities are that they do not think about seeking conflict since they are only concerned with the Dharma; they are not proud or haughty since they are respectful; they are not ostentatious since they seek all that is virtuous; and they do not act for gain, respect, or praise since their aim is to engage others in roots of virtue.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they share the gift of the Dharma. The four qualities are to uphold the sacred Dharma, to increase their own insight, to carry out holy beings’ activities, and to teach the factors of defilement[F.31.a] and purification.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they have the strength of past causes, and therefore do not exhaust their roots of virtue. The four qualities are to see the confusion of others without condemning them, to maintain love toward those who are angry, to show the causality in phenomena, and to never part from the mind of awakening.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they know the six perfections without having been taught. The four qualities are that they start with generosity, they do not quarrel over transgressions, they master the ways of attracting students in order to mature beings, and they have interest in the profound Dharma.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they turn away from resting in concentration, and they take birth in the desire realm. The four qualities are that their minds are capable, they generate the strength of the roots of virtue, they do not abandon beings, and they cultivate skillful means and insight.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they will never lose the buddhas’ qualities. The four qualities are embracing limitless saṃsāra, making offerings to and worshiping a limitless number of buddhas, cultivating infinite loving kindness, and cultivating infinite compassion.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they do not sever the buddhas’ lineage. The four qualities are that they do not break promises they have made, they practice what they preach, they have a strong inclination toward roots of virtue, and they abide by persevering effort. Brahmā, when bodhisattva[F.31.b] great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they do not sever the lineage of the buddhas.”
Once the Blessed One had explained these accomplishments of sets of four qualities, thirty-two thousand beings including gods and humans aroused the mind turned toward unsurpassed and perfect awakening. Five thousand bodhisattvas gained acceptance that phenomena are unborn. Furthermore, the bodhisattvas who had gathered from many buddha realms caused divine flowers to fall, covering the worlds of the trichiliocosm to knee height, as an offering to the Blessed One.
Then the youthful Jālinīprabha inquired of Brahmaviśeṣacintin, “Brahmā, the Blessed One said that you are the foremost among those skilled at asking questions. What is the bodhisattvas’ correct way of asking questions?”
Viśeṣacintin replied, “Noble son, queries that reify a self are improperly asked questions. Queries that reify another are improperly asked questions. Queries that reify phenomena are improperly asked questions. Jālinīprabha, queries that do not reify the self, something other, or phenomena are properly asked questions. Furthermore, Jālinīprabha, inquiries with a view of origination are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of cessation are incorrect. Incorrect is any inquiry posed with a view of what is tenable and what is not. Jālinīprabha, the correct way to ask is to question without any view of production, cessation, or what is tenable and what is not.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, inquiries with a view of defilement are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of purification are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of saṃsāra[F.32.a] are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of transcending saṃsāra are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of passing beyond suffering are incorrect. Jālinīprabha, to ask questions with no view of defilement, purification, saṃsāra, transcending saṃsāra, or passing beyond suffering is the correct way of asking. Why? This is because phenomena are unchanging; so there are no emotional defilements and there is no purification, no circling in saṃsāra, and no passing beyond suffering.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, an inquiry for the sake of gain is incorrect. An inquiry for the sake of reward is incorrect. An inquiry aimed at superknowledge is incorrect. An inquiry for the sake of realization and meditation is incorrect. An inquiry for the sake of being freed from something is incorrect. Jālinīprabha, to ask questions with no limitations, no grasping, no fabrication, no understanding, no superknowledge, no abiding, no meditation, and no view of meditation is the correct way of asking.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, an inquiry based on thoughts such as, ‘this is positive,’ ‘this is negative,’ ‘this is defiled,’ ‘this is undefiled,’ ‘this is unwholesome,’ ‘this is not unwholesome,’ ‘this is conditioned,’ ‘this is unconditioned,’ ‘this is worldly,’ or ‘this transcends the world’ is not the proper way to ask questions. Jālinīprabha, as long as questions are formulated with duality in mind, the interrogation is improper. Jālinīprabha, correct questions are asked with no duality, no nonduality, no notion, no name, and no idea in mind.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, a question asked by differentiating buddhas,[F.32.b] Dharma teachings, saṅghas, buddha realms, beings, or vehicles is an incorrect way to investigate. Jālinīprabha, questions asked without separating or uniting any phenomena are correct interrogations. Furthermore, Jālinīprabha, all phenomena are proper; all phenomena are improper.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “Brahmā, how is it that all phenomena are proper? How is that all phenomena are improper?”
Brahmā replied, “All phenomena are inconceivable. This is why all phenomena are proper. When those engaged in thought relate to inconceivable phenomena, they become improper. The void characteristic of all phenomena is proper. Those who are not interested in the void become involved in exaggeration. When one exaggerates, one becomes involved in exaggeration; and the greater one’s involvement in exaggeration, the more improper one becomes.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “Brahmā, what is the nature of phenomena?”
Brahmā replied, “Noble son, phenomena are devoid of a domain of their own, which is the ultimate absence of desire.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “Tell me Brahmā, is it not true that very few can understand this: the way all things are?”
Brahmā replied, “Noble son, the ultimate absence of desire is not a singular entity, nor is it a multiplicity. Jālinīprabha, whenever a son or daughter of noble family understands the way things are, he or she does not realize anything. This is how it has always been, and it will always be this way. Why? Because the blessed ones teach that nonunderstanding is knowing all.
“When beings hear this teaching properly and gain trust in it, they are practicing just as it has been taught; they do not conceptually elaborate on any phenomenon.[F.33.a] Whoever does not conceptually elaborate on any phenomenon does not understand anything. Whoever does not understand anything does not wander in saṃsāra, and neither do they have the qualities of nirvāṇa. You may wonder why this is. This is because the blessed ones do not apprehend either saṃsāra or nirvāṇa.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “But do the blessed ones not teach the Dharma so that beings may pass beyond saṃsāra?”
Brahmā responded, “Do the blessed ones teach any Dharma to pass beyond saṃsāra?”
Jālinīprabha replied, “No, they do not.”
Brahmā continued, “Noble son, therefore the blessed ones do not eliminate saṃsāra, and do not lead beings to nirvāṇa. Nevertheless, they teach that nirvāṇa is attained by going beyond dualistic notions. In this, they do not cause anyone to go beyond saṃsāra, nor do they lead beings to nirvāṇa. Why not? This is because in equality, there is no circling in a saṃsāra, no attainment of a nirvāṇa, no defilement, and no purification.”
The Blessed One applauded Brahmaviśeṣacintin, saying, “Excellent, Brahmā, excellent! Brahmā, this point should be explained just as you have done.”
As he correctly delivered this Dharma teaching, two thousand monks freed their minds from contaminations, beyond further grasping.
Then the Blessed One said to Brahmā, “Brahmā, I do not apprehend saṃsāra or nirvāṇa. Why not? Even though the thus-gone ones speak of saṃsāra, there is no saṃsāra to circle in; they teach nirvāṇa, although there is no nirvāṇa to attain. Brahmā, those who understand the meaning of this explanation are neither in saṃsāra nor in nirvāṇa.”
Then[F.33.b] five hundred of the monks in the assembly who had heard this teaching arose to leave and said, “If there is no saṃsāra in which we circle, and if there is no nirvāṇa to attain, then our observation of pure conduct is also pointless. So why then do we need meditation, concentration, absorption, and attainment on the path?”
Youthful Jālinīprabha responded to the Blessed One, “Blessed One, those who pursue the birth or the cessation of anything will not become buddhas. Blessed One, those who try to attain a reified nirvāṇa will not pass beyond saṃsāra. Why not? Blessed One, passing beyond suffering is the quelling of all signs and the end of all movements of thought. But, Blessed One, these foolish people who have gone forth as monks within the well-spoken Dharma-Vinaya now fall into the views of the non-Buddhists as they seek a reified nirvāṇa. Blessed One, when people try to reach a reified nirvāṇa within a total transcendence of all phenomena, like oil pressed out of sesame seeds or butter extracted from milk, they are but proud hearers and non-Buddhists. Blessed One, those who practice correctly do not see any birth or cessation in any phenomenon, do not have anything to attain, and do not seek any realization.”
Then youthful Jālinīprabha said to Brahmaviśeṣacintin, “Brahmā, please give a teaching to these five hundred monks who arose to leave, to inspire them with the Dharma-Vinaya, make them regain their trust, and free them from their unwholesome views.”
“Noble son, they cannot avoid it—they cannot avoid it,” he responded.7[F.34.a] “Even if one were to travel through as many buddha realms as there are grains of sand in the river Ganges, one could not escape this teaching. Noble son, it is like childish beings who are afraid of space and try to escape it; yet everywhere they run, they still see it. Likewise, these monks may go as far as they can, but they cannot escape the characteristics of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness.
“Now, imagine someone else who says he wants to find space and searches for it. No matter where he goes, and no matter how much he talks about it, he will not find space. Though he moves within space, he cannot see it. Why? Because space is just a name. Noble son, it is the same with these monks who search for a reified nirvāṇa. Even though they function within nirvāṇa, they cannot see it, cannot understand it. Why not? Noble son, because nirvāṇa is just a name. Just as we can utter the word “space,” and yet there is nothing to take hold of, so can we can utter “nirvāṇa, nirvāṇa,” and yet there is nothing to take hold of.”
Upon hearing these explanations, the five hundred monks freed their minds from contaminations beyond further grasping and attained the superknowledges. They said, “Blessed One, beings who search for a real nirvāṇa in a total transcendence of all phenomena cannot reach buddhahood. Blessed One, we are not ordinary beings, nor are we on the path of training, and we are also not worthy ones. We have neither saṃsāric features nor those of nirvāṇa. Why not? Blessed One, to become a buddha, there should be no action, thought, movement of mind, or elaboration.”
Then venerable[F.34.b] Śāriputra said to these monks, “Venerable ones, you understand the spiritual practice. You have accomplished your own benefit.”
The monks replied, “Reverend Śāriputra, we understand defilement. We have accomplished nonaction.”
Śāriputra inquired, “Venerable ones, why do you say this?”
The monks replied, “Reverend Śāriputra, it is because we understand defilement that we are spiritual practitioners. Reverend Śāriputra, nonaction is nirvāṇa; reflecting upon this, we have realized the nature of defilement and say, ‘we have accomplished nonaction.’ ”
Śāriputra assented, “Excellent, excellent, venerable ones! Venerable ones, you are now at the level where you are worthy recipients of offerings.”
The monks replied, “Reverend Śāriputra, just as the Teacher does not partake of offerings, so should we train.”
“Why?”
“Reverend Śāriputra, because the Thus-Gone One naturally knows the realm of phenomena.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin then inquired of the Blessed One, “Blessed One, who are those who are worthy recipients of offerings?”
The Blessed One replied, “Brahmā, those who are not carried away by worldly concerns.”
In this sūtra, the Buddha Śākyamuni and a number of the bodhisattvas, elders, and gods in his assembly engage in a lively exchange clarifying many key points of the Dharma from the perspective of the Mahāyāna, including the four truths, the origin of saṃsāra, and the identity of the buddhas, while praising the qualities of the paragons of the Mahāyāna, the bodhisattvas.
This text was translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Gyurmé Avertin translated the text from Tibetan into English. Andreas Doctor compared the translation against the original Tibetan and edited the translation. The Dharmachakra Translation Committee would like to thank Khenchen Pema Sherab for his generous assistance with the resolution of several difficult passages.
The generous sponsorship of Zhou Tian Yu, Chen Yi Qin, Zhou Xun, and Zhao Xuan, which helped make the work on this translation possible, is most gratefully acknowledged.
The Questions of Brahmaviśeṣacintin is an important Mahāyāna sūtra that enjoyed significant popularity in Buddhist India, China, and Tibet over the centuries. The setting for this teaching is the Veṇuvana on the outskirts of Rājagṛha, the capital city in the kingdom of Magadha. The teaching itself takes the form of a lively discussion between the Buddha and several bodhisattvas, such as Brahmaviśeṣacintin, Jālinīprabha, and Mañjuśrī, as well as elders, such as Śāriputra and Mahākāśyapa, and even various gods who attend the teaching. This sūtra blends practical and theoretical strands of Mahāyāna and emphasizes how bodhisattvas should practice the Dharma—a training that transcends both the mundane and the supramundane. Indeed, although this sūtra stresses the importance of “donning the armor of diligence,” this practice must unfold within the context of the view of emptiness. The bodhisattva is therefore directed to make every effort to help all beings, while realizing that ultimately there is no action, no actor, and no beneficiary. As with many Mahāyāna sūtras, this text does not aim at a systematic presentation of doctrine,1 but rather at evoking the nature and scope of awakening by means of pertinent conversations and illustrations. The text presents many well-known Dharma topics, including the four truths, the six perfections, and the Three Jewels, all from a Mahāyāna perspective that emphasizes the view of emptiness.
No Sanskrit manuscript of The Questions of Brahmaviśeṣacintin appears to have survived. In addition to the Tibetan translation, the text is also extant in three Chinese translations by Dharmarakṣa (Taishō 585), Kumārajīva (Taishō 586), and Bodhiruci (Taishō 587). The oldest Chinese translation is that by Dharmarakṣa, which is dated as early as 286
The Tibetan translation, which we have rendered into English here, was completed several centuries later during the early translation period of the ninth century, when most Mahāyāna sūtras were translated in Tibet. This dating may be inferred from the text’s inclusion in the Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) imperial inventory of early Tibetan translations, which is dated to c. 812
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was dwelling in Veṇuvana, at the Kalandakanivāpa, near Rājagṛha, together with a large saṅgha of sixty-four thousand monks and seventy-two thousand bodhisattvas. They were all clairvoyant, having the superknowledges. All of them had attained recollection, had unflinching confidence, had mastered absorption, enjoyed the superknowledges, were endowed with fearless eloquence, were proficient in the teachings on the essence of all things, and had attained acceptance that phenomena are unborn. Among them were youthful Mañjuśrī, youthful Ratnapāṇi, youthful Ratnamudrāhasta, youthful Ratnaśrī, youthful Gaganagañja, youthful Sahacittotpādadharmacakrapravartin, youthful Jālinīprabha, youthful Vijṛmbhita, youthful Śrīgarbha, youthful Sarvasvaparityāgin, youthful Padmavyūha, youthful Siṃha, youthful Candraprabha, youthful Candraraśmiprabha, youthful Agramati, and youthful Svālaṃkāravyūha. Present also were the sixteen5 holy beings Bhadrapāla, Ratnākara, Susārthavāha, Naradatta, Guhagupta, Varuṇadatta, Indradatta, Uttaramati, Viśeṣamati, Vardhamānamati, Amoghadarśin,[F.23.b] Susaṃprasthita, Suvikrāntavikrāmin, Anantamati, Anikṣiptadhura, Sūryagarbha, and Dharaṇīṃdhara, along with other such beings among seventy-two thousand bodhisattvas. There were also the Four Great Kings, the gods of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, such as Śakra, lord of the gods, and the gods of the Heaven Free from Strife,6 the Heaven of Joy, the Heaven of Delighting in Emanations, and the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations, as well as a hundred thousand gods of the Brahmā realm, including Brahmā. There were also other humans and nonhuman beings, including various fantastic gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, and mahoragas, who had all gathered together. Amid this assembly of hundreds of thousands of different disciples, the Blessed One was teaching the Dharma.
The bodhisattva youthful Jālinīprabha draped his shawl over one shoulder and knelt on his right knee. With his palms together, he bowed toward the Blessed One. He then shook the worlds in the trichiliocosm and, considering all the beings there, asked the Blessed One, “If I were to ask a question, would the Blessed One offer me an explanation? Could I ask a small question of the blessed, thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha?”
“Jālinīprabha,” replied the Blessed One, “You may ask the Thus-Gone One whatever you please. Then I shall delight your mind by answering your question.”[F.24.a]
The bodhisattva Jālinīprabha then addressed the Blessed One, “When I observe the captivating body of the Blessed One, I see that it is brighter than one septillion suns. Blessed One, to be able to observe or examine the Thus-Gone One’s body is extraordinary. Furthermore, Blessed One, does the ability to observe the body of the Thus-Gone One or to examine it come from the power of the buddhas?”
“Jālinīprabha,” the Blessed One replied, “it is just as you have said. Beings are able to observe or examine the Thus-Gone One’s body only when the Thus-Gone One allows it. You may ask why, Jālinīprabha, thus-gone ones emanate rays of light called unfolding of peace. Sentient beings touched by these light rays are able to observe and examine the body of thus-gone ones with no impairment to their eye faculty. Jālinīprabha, thus-gone ones have rays of light called fearless eloquence. Sentient beings touched by these light rays ask questions of the thus-gone ones, and reply to questions with questions. Jālinīprabha, thus-gone ones have rays of light called accumulation of virtuous roots. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones in order to obtain the kingdom of a universal monarch. Likewise, thus-gone ones have rays of light called unfolding of virtue. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones in order to become like Śakra. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called boon of sovereignty. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones in order to be reborn in the world of Brahmā. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called free of emotional defilements. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones about the hearers’ vehicle. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called one-pointed in solitude.[F.24.b] Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones about the solitary buddhas’ vehicle. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called bestowal of empowerment into the wisdom of omniscience. Sentient beings touched by these light rays question the thus-gone ones about the Great Vehicle of buddhahood. Thus-gone ones have rays of light called special conveyance. Sentient beings touched by these light rays are able to touch the soles of a thus-gone one’s feet as he comes and goes. All such beings will have happy rebirths in higher realms as soon as they die. They have rays of light called array of all ornaments. When thus-gone ones go to a town, they emanate these light rays, and all sentient beings touched by this light of the thus-gone ones gain supreme happiness. And a display of all types of ornaments also adorns the town.
“The thus-gone ones’ rays of light called shaker move infinite, limitless world systems. The rays of light called revealer of happiness eliminate the suffering that hell beings normally endure. The rays of light called sublime love guard beings born in the animal realm from eating one another. The rays of light called refreshment remove the suffering that beings normally endure in the world of Yama. The rays of light called stainless give sight to blind beings. The rays of light called hearing give hearing to deaf beings. The rays of light called abandonment lead beings who follow the path of the ten types of negative actions onto the path of the ten positive actions. The rays of light called modesty grant mindfulness to intoxicated beings.[F.25.a] The rays of light called disappearance bring beings with wrong views to acquire the right view. The rays of light called giving make stingy beings generous. The rays of light called absence of torment lead ill-natured beings to discipline. The rays of light called beneficial grant forbearance and gentleness to beings with harmful intentions. The rays of light called blazing inspire lazy beings with diligence. The rays of light called focus give concentration to beings with weak mindfulness. The rays of light called wisdom give insight to beings with faulty insight. The rays of light called immaculate inspire faith in beings bereft of it. The rays of light called retention expose uneducated beings to the teachings. The rays of light called politeness instill modesty and propriety in shameless and reckless beings. The rays of light called weariness lead beings who act out of desire to overcome their desire. The rays of light called joy make beings who act out of aversion overcome their aversion. The rays of light called clarity lead ignorant beings to understand dependent origination. The rays of light called ubiquitous make beings who act out of an equal measure of the three poisons abandon this way of acting.
“Jālinīprabha, the thus-gone ones also have rays of light called revealing all forms. Beings touched by these light rays can clearly see the thus-gone ones’ bodies in many hundreds of thousands of colors.[F.25.b] Jālinīprabha, if I began to speak about the light rays of the thus-gone ones, I could not complete an explanation about the features of the light rays of the thus-gone ones even if I were to speak for an eon, or even longer. In this way, the thus-gone, worthy, and perfect buddhas have rays of light with infinite and limitless qualities.”
The bodhisattva Jālinīprabha replied to the Blessed One, “Blessed One, it is wonderful that you explain in this way the immeasurable array of the thus-gone ones’ physical features, and that you grant such Dharma teachings with inconceivable skillful means. Blessed One, we have never before heard about these light rays of the buddhas. By my understanding of what the Blessed One has taught, any bodhisattva who acquires faith upon hearing the names of these light rays will gain the power to illuminate with such light rays of the perfect buddhas. Now, Blessed One, please send forth those rays of light by which the Thus-Gone One invites bodhisattvas from other buddha realms to come at once to this Enduring world system. In that way, those bodhisattvas who have reached the culmination of the process of question, answer, and further explanation may come here to confer with the Thus-Gone One, pay their respects to him, and receive further clarification. Please send the light called invitation to the bodhisattvas.”
The Blessed One then issued from his body light rays that illuminate inconceivable, limitless world systems. As soon as the light had invoked the bodhisattvas,[F.26.a] they flocked into this Enduring world system.
To the east of this buddha realm, past as many hundreds of thousands of buddha realms as there are grains of sand in seventy-two Ganges rivers, there lies a buddha realm called Pariśuddha. There at present resides the thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha Candraprabha, alive and well. In that buddha realm he also explains the Dharma, teaching exclusively to bodhisattvas. One of them is a bodhisattva great being irreversible from the path to awakening called Brahmaviśeṣacintin who, as soon as the light touched him, went before the blessed Thus-Gone One Candraprabha. He prostrated to the feet of that blessed one before asking, “Blessed One, what is the cause and what is the condition for such great light to appear in the world?”
That blessed one replied, “Brahmā, to the west of this buddha realm, past as many hundreds of thousands of buddha realms as there are grains of sand in seventy-two Ganges rivers, there is a realm called Enduring, where the thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha Śākyamuni at present resides. Alive and well, he is teaching the Dharma. That thus-gone one has emanated this light from his body to invite the bodhisattvas of the ten directions.”
Then Brahmaviśeṣacintin said to the Blessed One, “Since that blessed, thus-gone one wants to see me, I shall go to the world system called Enduring and see the Blessed One Śākyamuni, prostrate to him, pay homage to him, question him,[F.26.b] and seek clarification from him.”
The Blessed One said, “Brahmā, now millions of bodhisattvas in great number are converging in the Enduring world system. So you should go if you think this is the right time. Brahmā, when you are in this buddha realm, you should abide by ten resolves, which are:
1. Harbor no anger, whether you hear pleasant or negative words.
2. Be loving, whether you hear pleasant or negative words.
3. Have compassion for beings at all times.
4. Care for good and middling as well as lesser beings.
5. Make no distinction when people worship you or disrespect you.
6. Do not look down on others who have faults and are confused.
7. Consider the various vehicles to be of one taste.
8. Do not be afraid when hearing about the suffering in the lower realms.
9. Consider all bodhisattvas as your teachers.
10. Understand the rarity of seeing a thus-gone one in a realm afflicted by the five degenerations.
“Brahmā, as you stay in that buddha realm, abide by these ten resolves.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin said to the Blessed One, “I am not suitable to speak with a lion’s roar in front of you, Blessed One. Still, the Blessed One clearly knows what I do. Therefore, Blessed One, I will stay in that buddha realm, training and abiding by those ten resolves.”
Other bodhisattvas of the buddha realm of the blessed, thus-gone Candraprabha said to the Thus-Gone One, “Blessed One, it is fortunate that we were not born in that buddha realm, where uncouth beings congregate.”[F.27.a]
The Blessed One replied, “Noble sons, do not say that. Why not? Noble sons, compared to practicing pure conduct for one hundred thousand eons here in this buddha realm, it is much better to remain without anger for one morning in that Enduring world system. This is because, in that world system, there are so many more emotional defilements, so much more harm, and so much more defilement.”
At that point, twelve thousand bodhisattvas from that buddha realm departed with Brahmaviśeṣacintin. They said, “Brahmā, we are also going to the Enduring world system to train in these resolves, to see the Blessed One Śākyamuni, to prostrate before him, and to pay homage to him. Through the different states of equipoise, we shall abide in that buddha realm.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin and the twelve thousand bodhisattvas prostrated to the feet of the blessed, thus-gone Candraprabha, and then disappeared from their buddha realm and went to the buddha realm of the blessed, thus-gone, worthy, and perfect Buddha Śākyamuni, in the time it takes a strong man to bend a straightened arm or to straighten a bent arm.
At that point, the Blessed One asked the bodhisattva Jālinīprabha, “Jālinīprabha, did you witness the arrival of Brahmaviśeṣacintin?”
“I saw him, Blessed One.”
The Blessed One then said, “Jālinīprabha, Brahmaviśeṣacintin is foremost among the bodhisattvas skilled[F.27.b] in asking questions correctly and thoroughly. He is foremost among those who use appropriate words. He is foremost in terms of speaking the truth. He is foremost among those who speak kindly. He is the foremost in sincere speech. He is foremost among respectful speakers. He is foremost among those whose use of words is unconstrained. He is foremost in formulating the indirect teachings. He is foremost among those who are free of anger. He is foremost among those who are loving. He is foremost among the compassionate. He is foremost among the joyful. He is foremost among those who have equanimity. He is also foremost among all bodhisattvas who have eliminated every doubt and know how to pose questions.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin, together with the twelve thousand bodhisattvas, now went before the Blessed One. They paid homage by prostrating to the feet of the Blessed One and circumambulated him three times. Then they bowed to the Blessed One with palms joined and praised the Blessed One in many respects through these verses:
Having addressed these verses to the Blessed One, Brahmaviśeṣacintin then asked him, “Blessed One, how do bodhisattvas firmly maintain their resolve without becoming disheartened? Blessed One, how do bodhisattvas speak with certainty while never hurting others with their words? How do they increase their roots of virtue? How are they not corrupted, and how is their conduct not errant? How do they increase virtuous qualities?[F.29.a] How do they progress from level to level? How do they skillfully mature beings? How do they master being of service to beings? How do they guard the mind of awakening? How do they focus their minds one-pointedly and not become distracted? How is it that they are skilled in searching for the Dharma? How is it that they are skilled at escaping downfalls? How is it that they are skilled at taming emotional defilements? How is it that they are skilled at being surrounded by an assembly? How is it that they are skilled at presenting the Dharma? How is it that they have the strength of past causes, and therefore do not exhaust their roots of virtue? How is it that they can practice the perfections, from generosity to insight, without being taught? How is it that they are skilled in turning away from the blissful states of concentration? How is it that they will never be deprived of buddha qualities? How is it that they will never sever the buddhas’ lineage?”
The Blessed One replied to Brahmaviśeṣacintin, “Excellent! Excellent, Brahmā! Brahmā, your motivation for asking the Thus-Gone One about such topics is excellent. Therefore, Brahmā, listen with the greatest care, and keep this in mind. I shall explain.”
“Very well, Blessed One” replied Brahmaviśeṣacintin, and he listened to the Blessed One with full attention.
The Blessed One then said, “Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they have a firm resolve and do not become disheartened. The four qualities are compassion for others,[F.29.b] indefatigable diligence, seeing saṃsāra as a dream, and considering the buddhas’ wisdom to be unparalleled. So, Brahmā, bodhisattva great beings endowed with these four qualities have a firm resolve and do not become disheartened.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they speak with certainty and never hurt others with their words. The four qualities are that bodhisattvas declare with certainty that no phenomenon has an individual self, bodhisattvas declare with certainty that all places of birth are bereft of joy, bodhisattvas declare with certainty their praise of the Great Vehicle, and bodhisattvas declare with certainty that the effects of positive and negative actions are never lost. Brahmā, these are the four declarations of certainty of bodhisattva great beings.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they increase their roots of virtue. The four qualities are discipline, learning, generosity, and renunciation.
“Brahmā, bodhisattva great beings are not corrupted and avoid errant conduct when they are unaffected by these four circumstances: loss, criticism, anonymity, and suffering. Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are impervious to these four circumstances, they are not corrupted and avoid errant conduct.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they increase their roots of virtue. The four qualities are leading beings to awakening, giving without expectations of any reward, upholding the sacred Dharma,[F.30.a] and teaching insight to bodhisattvas.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they progress from level to level. The four qualities are that they accumulate roots of virtue, they avoid all negativities, they are skilled at dedication, and they have intense diligence.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they skillfully mature beings. The four qualities are that they act in accordance with beings, they rejoice in the merit of others, they confess negativity, and they supplicate all the buddhas.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they know how to be of service to others. The four qualities are assisting all beings, being unconcerned with their own happiness, being patient and gentle, and having eliminated pride.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they do not squander the mind of awakening. The four qualities are remembering the buddhas, preceding all roots of virtue with the mind of awakening, relying on spiritual friends, and praising the Great Vehicle.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, their minds are focused one-pointedly, and they do not get carried away. The four qualities are that they have abandoned the motivation of the hearers, they have renounced the mindset of solitary buddhas, they search for the Dharma insatiably, and they teach the Dharma as they have heard it.
“Brahmā,[F.30.b] when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they search for the Dharma. The four qualities are that they consider the Dharma as a jewel because it is so difficult to find, they consider the Dharma as a medicine because it cures all ailments, they consider the Dharma as a boon because it cannot be lost, and they consider the Dharma as the pacification of all suffering because it takes beings beyond suffering.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they are skilled at escaping downfalls. The four qualities are an inner acceptance that phenomena are not born, an inner acceptance that phenomena do not cease because they are not transferred, an inner acceptance of dependent arising by analyzing causes, and an inner acceptance of the changing nature of the mind from one moment to the next.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they purify emotional defilements. The four qualities are that they analyze things correctly, they pledge to maintain discipline in the future, they generate the power of virtuous qualities, and they dwell in solitude.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they are skilled at being surrounded by an assembly. The four qualities are that they do not think about seeking conflict since they are only concerned with the Dharma; they are not proud or haughty since they are respectful; they are not ostentatious since they seek all that is virtuous; and they do not act for gain, respect, or praise since their aim is to engage others in roots of virtue.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they share the gift of the Dharma. The four qualities are to uphold the sacred Dharma, to increase their own insight, to carry out holy beings’ activities, and to teach the factors of defilement[F.31.a] and purification.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they have the strength of past causes, and therefore do not exhaust their roots of virtue. The four qualities are to see the confusion of others without condemning them, to maintain love toward those who are angry, to show the causality in phenomena, and to never part from the mind of awakening.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they know the six perfections without having been taught. The four qualities are that they start with generosity, they do not quarrel over transgressions, they master the ways of attracting students in order to mature beings, and they have interest in the profound Dharma.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they turn away from resting in concentration, and they take birth in the desire realm. The four qualities are that their minds are capable, they generate the strength of the roots of virtue, they do not abandon beings, and they cultivate skillful means and insight.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they will never lose the buddhas’ qualities. The four qualities are embracing limitless saṃsāra, making offerings to and worshiping a limitless number of buddhas, cultivating infinite loving kindness, and cultivating infinite compassion.
“Brahmā, when bodhisattva great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they do not sever the buddhas’ lineage. The four qualities are that they do not break promises they have made, they practice what they preach, they have a strong inclination toward roots of virtue, and they abide by persevering effort. Brahmā, when bodhisattva[F.31.b] great beings are endowed with these four qualities, they do not sever the lineage of the buddhas.”
Once the Blessed One had explained these accomplishments of sets of four qualities, thirty-two thousand beings including gods and humans aroused the mind turned toward unsurpassed and perfect awakening. Five thousand bodhisattvas gained acceptance that phenomena are unborn. Furthermore, the bodhisattvas who had gathered from many buddha realms caused divine flowers to fall, covering the worlds of the trichiliocosm to knee height, as an offering to the Blessed One.
Then the youthful Jālinīprabha inquired of Brahmaviśeṣacintin, “Brahmā, the Blessed One said that you are the foremost among those skilled at asking questions. What is the bodhisattvas’ correct way of asking questions?”
Viśeṣacintin replied, “Noble son, queries that reify a self are improperly asked questions. Queries that reify another are improperly asked questions. Queries that reify phenomena are improperly asked questions. Jālinīprabha, queries that do not reify the self, something other, or phenomena are properly asked questions. Furthermore, Jālinīprabha, inquiries with a view of origination are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of cessation are incorrect. Incorrect is any inquiry posed with a view of what is tenable and what is not. Jālinīprabha, the correct way to ask is to question without any view of production, cessation, or what is tenable and what is not.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, inquiries with a view of defilement are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of purification are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of saṃsāra[F.32.a] are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of transcending saṃsāra are incorrect. Inquiries with a view of passing beyond suffering are incorrect. Jālinīprabha, to ask questions with no view of defilement, purification, saṃsāra, transcending saṃsāra, or passing beyond suffering is the correct way of asking. Why? This is because phenomena are unchanging; so there are no emotional defilements and there is no purification, no circling in saṃsāra, and no passing beyond suffering.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, an inquiry for the sake of gain is incorrect. An inquiry for the sake of reward is incorrect. An inquiry aimed at superknowledge is incorrect. An inquiry for the sake of realization and meditation is incorrect. An inquiry for the sake of being freed from something is incorrect. Jālinīprabha, to ask questions with no limitations, no grasping, no fabrication, no understanding, no superknowledge, no abiding, no meditation, and no view of meditation is the correct way of asking.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, an inquiry based on thoughts such as, ‘this is positive,’ ‘this is negative,’ ‘this is defiled,’ ‘this is undefiled,’ ‘this is unwholesome,’ ‘this is not unwholesome,’ ‘this is conditioned,’ ‘this is unconditioned,’ ‘this is worldly,’ or ‘this transcends the world’ is not the proper way to ask questions. Jālinīprabha, as long as questions are formulated with duality in mind, the interrogation is improper. Jālinīprabha, correct questions are asked with no duality, no nonduality, no notion, no name, and no idea in mind.
“Jālinīprabha, furthermore, a question asked by differentiating buddhas,[F.32.b] Dharma teachings, saṅghas, buddha realms, beings, or vehicles is an incorrect way to investigate. Jālinīprabha, questions asked without separating or uniting any phenomena are correct interrogations. Furthermore, Jālinīprabha, all phenomena are proper; all phenomena are improper.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “Brahmā, how is it that all phenomena are proper? How is that all phenomena are improper?”
Brahmā replied, “All phenomena are inconceivable. This is why all phenomena are proper. When those engaged in thought relate to inconceivable phenomena, they become improper. The void characteristic of all phenomena is proper. Those who are not interested in the void become involved in exaggeration. When one exaggerates, one becomes involved in exaggeration; and the greater one’s involvement in exaggeration, the more improper one becomes.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “Brahmā, what is the nature of phenomena?”
Brahmā replied, “Noble son, phenomena are devoid of a domain of their own, which is the ultimate absence of desire.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “Tell me Brahmā, is it not true that very few can understand this: the way all things are?”
Brahmā replied, “Noble son, the ultimate absence of desire is not a singular entity, nor is it a multiplicity. Jālinīprabha, whenever a son or daughter of noble family understands the way things are, he or she does not realize anything. This is how it has always been, and it will always be this way. Why? Because the blessed ones teach that nonunderstanding is knowing all.
“When beings hear this teaching properly and gain trust in it, they are practicing just as it has been taught; they do not conceptually elaborate on any phenomenon.[F.33.a] Whoever does not conceptually elaborate on any phenomenon does not understand anything. Whoever does not understand anything does not wander in saṃsāra, and neither do they have the qualities of nirvāṇa. You may wonder why this is. This is because the blessed ones do not apprehend either saṃsāra or nirvāṇa.”
Jālinīprabha asked, “But do the blessed ones not teach the Dharma so that beings may pass beyond saṃsāra?”
Brahmā responded, “Do the blessed ones teach any Dharma to pass beyond saṃsāra?”
Jālinīprabha replied, “No, they do not.”
Brahmā continued, “Noble son, therefore the blessed ones do not eliminate saṃsāra, and do not lead beings to nirvāṇa. Nevertheless, they teach that nirvāṇa is attained by going beyond dualistic notions. In this, they do not cause anyone to go beyond saṃsāra, nor do they lead beings to nirvāṇa. Why not? This is because in equality, there is no circling in a saṃsāra, no attainment of a nirvāṇa, no defilement, and no purification.”
The Blessed One applauded Brahmaviśeṣacintin, saying, “Excellent, Brahmā, excellent! Brahmā, this point should be explained just as you have done.”
As he correctly delivered this Dharma teaching, two thousand monks freed their minds from contaminations, beyond further grasping.
Then the Blessed One said to Brahmā, “Brahmā, I do not apprehend saṃsāra or nirvāṇa. Why not? Even though the thus-gone ones speak of saṃsāra, there is no saṃsāra to circle in; they teach nirvāṇa, although there is no nirvāṇa to attain. Brahmā, those who understand the meaning of this explanation are neither in saṃsāra nor in nirvāṇa.”
Then[F.33.b] five hundred of the monks in the assembly who had heard this teaching arose to leave and said, “If there is no saṃsāra in which we circle, and if there is no nirvāṇa to attain, then our observation of pure conduct is also pointless. So why then do we need meditation, concentration, absorption, and attainment on the path?”
Youthful Jālinīprabha responded to the Blessed One, “Blessed One, those who pursue the birth or the cessation of anything will not become buddhas. Blessed One, those who try to attain a reified nirvāṇa will not pass beyond saṃsāra. Why not? Blessed One, passing beyond suffering is the quelling of all signs and the end of all movements of thought. But, Blessed One, these foolish people who have gone forth as monks within the well-spoken Dharma-Vinaya now fall into the views of the non-Buddhists as they seek a reified nirvāṇa. Blessed One, when people try to reach a reified nirvāṇa within a total transcendence of all phenomena, like oil pressed out of sesame seeds or butter extracted from milk, they are but proud hearers and non-Buddhists. Blessed One, those who practice correctly do not see any birth or cessation in any phenomenon, do not have anything to attain, and do not seek any realization.”
Then youthful Jālinīprabha said to Brahmaviśeṣacintin, “Brahmā, please give a teaching to these five hundred monks who arose to leave, to inspire them with the Dharma-Vinaya, make them regain their trust, and free them from their unwholesome views.”
“Noble son, they cannot avoid it—they cannot avoid it,” he responded.7[F.34.a] “Even if one were to travel through as many buddha realms as there are grains of sand in the river Ganges, one could not escape this teaching. Noble son, it is like childish beings who are afraid of space and try to escape it; yet everywhere they run, they still see it. Likewise, these monks may go as far as they can, but they cannot escape the characteristics of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness.
“Now, imagine someone else who says he wants to find space and searches for it. No matter where he goes, and no matter how much he talks about it, he will not find space. Though he moves within space, he cannot see it. Why? Because space is just a name. Noble son, it is the same with these monks who search for a reified nirvāṇa. Even though they function within nirvāṇa, they cannot see it, cannot understand it. Why not? Noble son, because nirvāṇa is just a name. Just as we can utter the word “space,” and yet there is nothing to take hold of, so can we can utter “nirvāṇa, nirvāṇa,” and yet there is nothing to take hold of.”
Upon hearing these explanations, the five hundred monks freed their minds from contaminations beyond further grasping and attained the superknowledges. They said, “Blessed One, beings who search for a real nirvāṇa in a total transcendence of all phenomena cannot reach buddhahood. Blessed One, we are not ordinary beings, nor are we on the path of training, and we are also not worthy ones. We have neither saṃsāric features nor those of nirvāṇa. Why not? Blessed One, to become a buddha, there should be no action, thought, movement of mind, or elaboration.”
Then venerable[F.34.b] Śāriputra said to these monks, “Venerable ones, you understand the spiritual practice. You have accomplished your own benefit.”
The monks replied, “Reverend Śāriputra, we understand defilement. We have accomplished nonaction.”
Śāriputra inquired, “Venerable ones, why do you say this?”
The monks replied, “Reverend Śāriputra, it is because we understand defilement that we are spiritual practitioners. Reverend Śāriputra, nonaction is nirvāṇa; reflecting upon this, we have realized the nature of defilement and say, ‘we have accomplished nonaction.’ ”
Śāriputra assented, “Excellent, excellent, venerable ones! Venerable ones, you are now at the level where you are worthy recipients of offerings.”
The monks replied, “Reverend Śāriputra, just as the Teacher does not partake of offerings, so should we train.”
“Why?”
“Reverend Śāriputra, because the Thus-Gone One naturally knows the realm of phenomena.”
Brahmaviśeṣacintin then inquired of the Blessed One, “Blessed One, who are those who are worthy recipients of offerings?”
The Blessed One replied, “Brahmā, those who are not carried away by worldly concerns.”
The text lacks a unifying thematic or narrative structure. In an attempt to order the material, the Korean rendering of Kumārajīva’s translation divides the text into eighteen chapters, although the original Sanskrit was most likely devoid of such chapter headings. These are also absent from the Tibetan translation, which merely divides the text into six sections (bam po) based on length rather than thematic content.
Taishō 585, translated by Dharmarakṣa in 286
In the colophons, Dharmatāśīla is at times listed under the Tibetan version of his name, Chönyi Tsültrim (chos nyid tshul khrims).
The Tibetan reads mtshe ma. This is an earlier translation of the yāma/yama realm, which was later translated as ’thab bral. For details, see Scherrer-Schaub 2002, 330.
Tentative translation following S: rigs kyi bu ’dong la rag go/ ’dong la rag go. D: rigs kyi bu ’dod la rag go/ ’dod la rag go.
K and S provide the more sensible reading of mtho (exalted) instead of thos; and Y, J, K, N, C, and S all read dmas pa (dejected) instead of ngoms pa.
Tibetan: nyi tsher spyod pa. Sanskrit: pradeśakārin. This refers to a lay practitioner (upāsaka) who observes two or three precepts out of the five lay vows (see Lamotte 2001, vol. 2, 644). However, it is possible that in the present context it refers to lay practice more broadly. Monier-Williams defines the term simply as “a type of ascetic.”
D has ’zung. However, all the other editions read ’jungs, which is old Tibetan meaning “miserly.”
Despite the word smras pa in Tibetan, which indicates a change of speaker, given what comes before and after in the conversation, it seems that both “No” and “awakening…” are the words of Brahmā.
Translation tentative. Here we have read yongs su ma dris pa instead of yongs su dris pa as it appears in the Tibetan.
Translation tentative. The Tibetan reads: de byed pa’i brtson ’grus kyis thos pa thams cad khong du chud par byas pa’i de bzhin gshegs pa de dag gis ming yang bskal pa’am/ bskal pa las lhag par brjod du yod kyang de bzhin gshegs pa de dag gis nga bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pa’i byang chub tu lung ma bstan.
Translation tentative. The Tibetan reads nam bdag kyang dge ba’i rtsa ba yongs su mi ’bri la/ chung ngu na dud ’gro’i skye gnas su song ba yan chad sems can gzhan gyi dge ba’i rtsa ba rnams bskyed pa ’di ni byang chub sems dpa’ rnams kyi dge ba’i rtsa ba yongs su dag pa’o.
The text here reads, “What is without self has a self.” (gang la bdag med pa de ni bdag yod pa’o). However, given the context, this seems to be a mistake. We have therefore amended this sentence according to S, which has the correct reading.
Translation follows S: rtsod pa med pa lhur byed pa yin no. D reads rtsod pa med pa lhur byed pa ma yin no.
This folia side is missing in the Degé edition of this text, which instead contains folia 97.b from The Questions of Sāgaramati (Toh 152). Our translation follows content of the missing folia given in the Comparative Edition.
One of the bodhisattvas attending this teaching.
Another name for Maitreya.
One of the bodhisattvas attending this teaching.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
One of the bodhisattvas attending this teaching.
One of the bodhisattvas attending this teaching.
A bodhisattva.
dmigs (pa) translates a number of Sanskrit terms including ālambana, upalabdhi, and alambhate. These terms commonly refer to apprehending or perception both in the sense of act and object (perceiving and what is perceived). As part of their doctrine of “threefold nonapprehending/nonreferentiality” (’khor gsum mi dmigs pa), Mahāyāna Buddhists famously assert that all three categories of apprehending lack substantiality.
The name of an eon (kalpa).
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
One of the “eight close sons of the Buddha,” he is also known as the bodhisattva who embodies compassion. In certain tantras, he is also the lord of the three families, where he embodies the compassion of the buddhas. In Tibet, he attained great significance as a special protector of Tibet, and in China, in female form, as Guanyin, the most important bodhisattva in all of East Asia.
The name of an eon (kalpa).
A householder, listed as one of the sixteen holy beings attending this teaching.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.
(1) In this text, the term is frequently used as a shorthand for Brahmaviśeṣacintin, one of the main interlocutors in this sūtra. (2) A high-ranking deity, presiding over a divine world where other beings consider him the creator; he is also considered to be the “Lord of Enduring” (our universe).
A bodhisattva who is one of the interlocutors in this teaching.
See “seven branches of awakening.”
One of the bodhisattvas attending this teaching.
(1) One of the bodhisattvas attending this teaching. (2) A buddha in the eastern buddha realm Pariśuddha.
One of the five aggregates.
Another term for saṃsāra , this is the counterpart of “purification.”
Named as one of the editor-translators of this sūtra.
One of the bodhisattvas attending this teaching.
The Dharma body, which is a buddha’s awakening, in contrast to his “Form body,” the rūpakāya, which is his visible form perceived by other beings.
An Indian scholar from the eighth century named as one of the translators of this sūtra.
Named as one of the editor-translators of this sūtra.
One of the Four Great Kings, or guardians of the world, he presides over the eastern quarter and rules over the gandharvas that live there.
Correct view, intention, speech, actions, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. These eight are included in the thirty-seven elements of awakening.
Literally “one who is stable” and usually translated as “elder,” a senior monastic teacher in the early Buddhist communities. Also became the name of the Buddhist tradition within which the Theravāda developed.
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (moha). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,” “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings.
The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.
tshangs pa khyad par sems kyis zhus pa (Brahmaviśeṣacintin-paripṛcchā). Toh 160, Degé Kangyur vol. 59 (mdo sde, ba), folios 23.a–100.b.
tshangs pa khyad par sems kyis zhus pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 59, pp. 63–259.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan[/lhan] dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Degé Tengyur, vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Lamotte, Étienne. The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom of Nāgārjuna (Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra). Vol. 3. Translated from the French (Le Traité de la grande Vertu de Sagesse de Nāgārjuna) by Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron. Unpublished manuscript, 2001.
Herrmann-Pfandt, Adelheid. Die lHan kar ma: ein früher Katalog der ins Tibetische übersetzten buddhistischen Texte. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2008.
Lourmé, Jean-Marie. “La Brahmaviśeṣacintiparipṛcchā, étude et traduction française.” PhD diss., École Pratique des Hautes Études, 1978.
Scherrer-Schaub, Cristina. “Enacting Words,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 25, nos. 1–2 (2002): 263.
C Choné
D Degé
H Lhasa (Zhol)
J Lithang
K Kangxi (Peking, late 17th Century)
N Narthang
S Stok Palace MS
Y Yongle
