While dwelling at Vulture Peak near Rājagṛha, the Buddha sets in motion the sūtras that are the most extensive of all—the sūtras on the Prajñāpāramitā, or “Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom.” Committed to writing around the start of the first millennium, these sūtras were expanded and contracted in the centuries that followed, eventually amounting to twenty-three volumes in the Tibetan Kangyur. Among them, The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines is a compact and coherent restatement of the longer versions, uniquely extant in Tibetan translation, without specific commentaries, and rarely studied. While the structure generally follows that of the longer versions, chapters 1–2 conveniently summarize all three hundred and sixty-seven categories of phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes which the sūtra examines in the light of wisdom or discriminative awareness. Chapter 31 and the final chapter 33 conclude with an appraisal of irreversible bodhisattvas, the pitfalls of rejecting this teaching, and the blessings that accrue from committing it to writing.
Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group under the direction of Jigme Khyentse Rinpoche and Pema Wangyal Rinpoche. The text was translated, introduced, and annotated by Dr. Gyurme Dorje, and edited by Charles Hastings and John Canti with contributions from Greg Seton.
This translation has been completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Work on this text was made possible thanks to generous donations made by Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse Rinpoche; respectfully and humbly offered by Judy Cole, William Tai, Jie Chi Tai and families; by Shi Jing and family; by Wang Kang Wei and Zhao Yun Qi and family; and by Matthew, Vivian, Ye Kong and family. They are all most gratefully acknowledged.
The Tibetan Buddhist tradition classifies the discourses delivered by Buddha Śākyamuni in terms of the three turnings of the doctrinal wheel, promulgated at different places and times in the course of his life. Among them, the sūtras of the first turning expound the four noble truths, those of the second turning explain emptiness and the essenceless nature of all phenomena, while those of the third turning elaborate further distinctions between the three essenceless natures.1 The sūtras of the transcendent perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā),2 to which the text translated here belongs, are firmly placed by their own assertion3 within the second turning, promulgated at Vulture Peak near Rājagṛha.
It is in these sūtras that the role of the compassionate bodhisattva with a mind set upon enlightenment achieves preeminence over the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas of lesser attainment.4 The central message subtly integrates relative truth and ultimate truth, reiterating that great bodhisattva beings should strive to attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in order to eliminate the sufferings of all sentient beings rather than merely terminate cyclic existence for their own sake, even though, from an ultimate perspective, there are no phenomena, no sentient beings, and no attainment of manifestly perfect buddhahood.
The relentless deconstruction of all conceptual elaborations with respect to phenomena, meditative experiences, and even the causal and fruitional attributes characteristic of the bodhisattva path, which is explicitly emphasized throughout these sūtras, may have been controversial,5 but it has given rise to both Madhyamaka dialectics and to the non-analytical meditative pursuits of the Chan (Zen) tradition. In Tibet, on the other hand, the sūtras are generally approached through study of The Ornament of Clear Realization and its extensive commentaries, which constitute the Parchin (phar phyin) literature—one of the principal subjects of the monastic college curriculum. These treatises elaborate on the eightfold structural progression of the bodhisattvas’ goals, paths, and fruit which are implied, though understated, in all but the recast manuscript of the Sūtra in Twenty-five Thousand Lines.
Traditional Tibetan accounts hold that, following their promulgation by Śākyamuni, the sūtras were concealed in non-human abodes—the longest Sūtra in One Billion Lines among the gandharvas, the Sūtra in Ten Million Lines among the devas, and the Sūtra in One Hundred Thousand Lines among the nāgas—the last of these being retrieved and revealed by Nāgārjuna from the ocean depths and initially propagated in South India.
The extant texts forming this cycle of sūtras are replete with abbreviations, modulations, and other mnemonic features, indicative of an early oral transmission—even today they are read aloud as an act of merit in monastic halls and public gatherings. At the same time, the medium length and longer sūtras explicitly extoll the merits of committing the sūtras to writing, in the form of a book, as an offering for the benefit of posterity.6
The earliest written version appears to have taken shape around the start of the first millennium, in the age when birch-bark and palm-leaf manuscripts first began to appear in the Indian subcontinent. Contemporary research (Falk 2011, Falk and Karashima 2012) has brought to our attention extant segments and fragments of a birch-bark scroll containing a portion of a generic manuscript of the Sūtra of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in the Gāndhārī language, written in Kharoṣṭhī script, which was, by all accounts, retrieved from a stone case in the Bajaur region of the Afghan-Pakistan border. The manuscript has been carbon dated within the range of 25–74
Philological evidence suggests that this manuscript was the forerunner of a later Gāndhārī manuscript translated by Lokakṣema into Chinese, while certain peculiarities of transcription and the presence of conventional mnemonic abbreviations also presuppose an earlier manuscript, which may no longer be extant.7 These Kharoṣṭhī scrolls are among the oldest surviving exemplars of all Indic texts, with the exception of the Aśokan rock inscriptions and pillar edicts, and it has been speculated that their source manuscript may even predate the original redaction of the Pāli Canon.8
Conze (1960: 1–2) outlines the case for the sūtras’ South Indian origin among the Pūrvaśaila and Aparaśaila schools of the Mahāsaṅghika order, where the monasteries of Amarāvati and Dhānyakataka each seems to have preserved a version in Prakrit. Other evidence, not least the survival of the Kharoṣṭhī manuscript segments from Bajaur, suggests, on the contrary, that the sūtras were first committed to writing in the northwest. The epigraphic research of Richard Salomon at the University of Washington tends toward the latter view. The Arapacana alphabet found in some of the longer sūtras as a dhāraṇī follows the order of letters and peculiarities of the Kharoṣṭhī script.9 Furthermore, the earliest Chinese translation of the Eight Thousand Lines (Taisho 224), dated 179–180
The fact that the sūtras were copied, expanded and translated rapidly into other languages suggests that the admonishment to commit them to writing as an act of merit was taken seriously by early proponents of the Great Vehicle. Scholarly opinion differs as to which of the sūtras appeared first. Conze (1960) considers that the first two chapters of the Verse Summation and the Eight Thousand Lines are the oldest, while Japanese scholars tend to give precedence to the Adamantine Cutter (in Three Hundred Lines). The latter text was highly influential in the development of Huineng’s Platform Sūtra (Liùzǔ Tánjīng), and a copy of it is also the world’s oldest extant printed book, dated 868, retrieved by Sir Aurel Stein from Dunhuang and preserved in The British Museum. Schopen (2005: 31–32, 55) puts forward the idea that there was a shift from the oral transmission exemplified in the Adamantine Cutter to the written transmission of the Eight Thousand Lines.
The historical evolution of the sūtras within the Indian subcontinent is examined preeminently in Conze (1960: 1–18), who outlines the following four historical phases: (1) the appearance of the medium length Sūtra in Eight Thousand Lines, dated 100
The titles of the various sūtras within the genre are differentiated on the basis of the number of thirty-two syllable “lines” (śloka) contained in their original Sanskrit manuscripts. There is also internal numbering, which assists navigation. This takes two forms: the tally of fascicles (kalāpa, bam po) into which the original bark or palm leaf manuscripts were bundled is indicated at the start of each tome, and the tally of chapters (parivarta, le’u) which distinguish the content is indicated at the conclusion of each chapter. The present translation emphasizes the divisions of the chapter titles, while encoding the residual tally of fascicles. For example the final fascicle heading of the sūtra, which would read “Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines. The thirty-fourth fascicle is as follows,” appears encoded as [B34].
In Tibetan translation, the sūtras of the transcendent perfection of wisdom comprise approximately one fifth of the entire Kangyur, taking up twenty-one volumes of the Lhasa and Urga Kangyurs, twenty-two of the Cone Kangyur, twenty-three of the Degé and Narthang Kangyurs, and up to twenty-seven of some of the manuscript Kangyurs. In most Kangyurs, this section, known as Prajñāpāramitā (shes phyin), precedes all the other sūtra divisions—the Avataṃsaka (phal chen), Ratnakūṭa (dkon brtsegs) and General Sūtra (mdo sde) sections—reflecting the high prestige of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom within Mahāyāna Buddhism as a whole. In most Kangyurs, including the Degé, the section includes twenty-three distinct texts, foremost among them being the “six mothers” (yum drug) and the “eleven children” (bu bcu gcig). In some Kangyurs, including those of the Peking family, the section contains only seventeen (the “mothers” and “children”), and the seven other texts usually classed in this genre are found in other divisions.
The six mothers are the “longer” and “medium” length sūtras, which are said to be distinguished by their structural presentation of all eight aspects of the bodhisattvas’ path, as elucidated in The Ornament of Clear Realization. The shorter texts, being terser, do not fully elaborate this structure.11 The six mothers are outlined as follows:
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 8)12 comprises twelve volumes, twenty-five fascicles, and seventy-two chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 9)13 comprises three volumes, seventy-eight fascicles, and seventy-six chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 10)14 comprises two and a half volumes, sixty fascicles, and eighty-seven chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Daśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 11) comprises one and a half volumes, thirty-four fascicles, and thirty-three chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines (Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 12) comprises one volume, twenty-four fascicles, and thirty-two chapters.
The Verse Summation of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom (Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā, Toh 13) comprises nineteen folios.
In addition to these Tibetan translations, there are extant Sanskrit manuscripts from Gilgit and Nepal, complete in some cases, partial in others, and Chinese translations representing all of the longer and medium length versions of the sūtra, with the exception of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines. A bibliographic appraisal of all texts within the cycle can be found in Conze (1960: 31–91), and listings of the corresponding translations into Western languages in Pfandt (1983).
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines, which is translated here, uniquely has no extant Sanskrit manuscripts or Chinese translations—the Tibetan version alone is extant—nor are there any extant commentaries of Indo-Tibetan or Sino-Japanese origin. For these reasons, Conze (1960: 46) has even expressed doubt as to its authenticity, suggesting that the sūtra may have been composed in Tibet. This, however, is highly unlikely—in style and content the sūtra is compatible with the three longer versions, and quite dissimilar to the indigenous Tibetan compositions of the ninth century, when it was listed in the Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) catalogue.15 Situ Paṇchen’s catalogue to the Degé Kangyur includes the colophon of this sūtra, indicating that it was translated into Tibetan by Jinamitra, Prajñāvarman, and the translator Yeshé Dé.16
Hikata (1958: ix–lxxxiii) claims that the text is a somewhat erratic version of the three longer sūtras, and yet this is not borne out by a detailed analysis of the sūtra itself, which, as we shall see, may justifiably be regarded as a compact and coherent restatement of the longer versions, having much more in common with them than with The Eight Thousand Lines.
The pioneering Norwegian Indologist Sten Konow is the only academic to have given serious consideration to our text in his 1941 monograph, which includes a Sanskrit reconstruction and translation of the first two chapters. These particular chapters are of great interest because they conveniently draw together the enumerations of the three hundred and sixty-seven aspects of phenomena, meditative experiences, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments that form the critique of the sūtras. Konow (1941: 70) compares the list of these phenomena and attributes to those found in other sūtras within the cycle and in other Mahāyāna texts. In particular, with regard to the unusual listing of only seventy-eight minor marks, rather than eighty, he speculates that The Ten Thousand Lines “may represent an earlier attempt,” predating the enumerations found in the Mahāvastu, Lalitavistara, and Mahāvyutpatti, which all appear to have a common source.
In the course of translating the present text, we have sought to identify parallel passages in the Dutt (1934) and Kimura (1971–2009) editions of the recast Sanskrit manuscript (which also facilitated the preparation of the trilingual glossary). Other secondary sources have also proved to be essential research tools, including Conze’s Materials for a Dictionary of the Prajñāpāramitā Literature (1973), along with his composite translation from the longer sūtras (1975), and the translations of the renowned Indian treatises of Haribhadra and Vimuktisena contained in Sparham (2006–2012). For appraisals of the transcendent perfection literature in general, readers may also wish to consult Dayal (1932), Conze (1960), Williams (1989), Jamieson (2000), and Brunnholzl (2010), the last of whom, in his introduction, offers important insights from the Tibetan commentarial tradition.
While the deconstruction of all aspects of conceptual elaboration is explicitly stated throughout the sūtra, the structural progression of the bodhisattva path is largely understood by implication and it is unraveled chiefly with reference to the commentary found in Maitreya’s Ornament of Clear Realization. The recast Sanskrit manuscript of later provenance, edited in Dutt (1934) and Kimura (1971–2009) presents the entire Twenty-five Thousand Lines in that context, and it is on that basis that we can also, by analogy, understand the implied meaning of The Ten Thousand Lines.
The eight aspects of the bodhisattvas’ progression include: three which present the theoretical understandings of the goals to be realized, four which present the practical application of training through which they will be realized, and one which presents the fruit arising from conclusive realization. Together these form the graduated approach of the bodhisattva path that is revered and maintained in all Tibetan traditions, and most exemplary in the lives and teachings of the great Kadampa masters, such as Ngok Loden Sherab. The eight aspects with their seventy topics may be outlined as follows:
Its ten topics include (i) setting of the mind on enlightenment, (ii) the instructions concerning its application within the Great Vehicle, (iii) the four aspects of ascertainment on the path of preparation, comprising warmth, peak, acceptance, and supremacy, (iv) the naturally abiding buddha nature which is the basis for attaining the Great Vehicle, (v) the referents through which the Great Vehicle is attained, (vi) the goals attained through the Great Vehicle, (vii) the armor-like attainment, (viii) attainment through engagement, (ix) attainment through the provisions of merit and gnosis, and (x) definitive attainment.
Its eleven topics include (i) essential aspects for understanding the path, (ii) the understanding of the path which is that of the śrāvakas, (iii) the understanding of the path which is that of the pratyekabuddhas, (iv) the beneficial path of insight, which accords with the Great Vehicle, (v) the functions of the path of cultivation, (vi) the aspirational path of cultivation, (vii) the path of cultivation resulting in eulogy, exhortation, and praise, (viii) the path of cultivation resulting in dedication, (ix) the path of cultivation resulting in sympathetic rejoicing, (x) the path of cultivation resulting in attainment, and (ix) the path of meditation resulting in purity.
Its nine topics include (i) the basic understanding that discernment leads to non-abiding in phenomenal existence, (ii) the basic understanding that compassion leads to non-abiding in quiescence, (iii) the basic understanding that lack of skillful means leads to distance from the transcendent perfection of wisdom, (iv) the basic understanding that skillful means leads to its proximity, (v) the basic understanding of the discordant factors associated with the fixation of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, (vi) the remedial factors countering those fixations, (vii) training in the aforementioned basic understandings, (viii) training in the sameness of those basic understandings, and (ix) the path of insight which integrates these basic understandings.
Its eleven topics include (i) the aspects of the aforementioned three theoretical understandings; (ii) training in those aspects; (iii) the qualities acquired through those trainings, (iv) the defects to be eliminated during training, (v) the defining characteristics of training, (vii) the path of provisions in accord with liberation, (vii) the path of preparation in accord with the aforementioned four degrees of penetration, (viii) the signs of the irreversible bodhisattva trainees, (ix) training in the sameness of phenomenal existence and quiescence, (x) the training associated with the pure realms, and (xi) training in skillful means for the sake of others.
Its eight topics include (i) the culminating training of warmth on the path of preparation, (ii) the culminating training in the peak on the path of preparation, (iii) the culminating training in acceptance on the path of preparation, (iv) the culminating training in supremacy on the path of preparation, (v) the culminating training on the path of insight, (vi) the culminating training on the path of cultivation, (vii) the culminating uninterrupted training on the path of cultivation, comprising the adamantine meditative stability, and (viii) the mistaken notions that are to be eliminated.
Its thirteen topics include (i–vi) the serial trainings in the six transcendent perfections of generosity, ethical discipline, tolerance, perseverance, meditative concentration and wisdom; (vii–xii) the serial training in the six recollections of the spiritual teacher, the buddha, the sacred doctrine, the monastic community, ethical discipline, and generosity; and (xiii) the serial training in the realization that phenomena are without essential nature.
Its four topics include (i) instantaneous training in terms of maturation, (ii) instantaneous training in terms of non-maturation, (iii) instantaneous training in terms of the lack of defining characteristics, and (iv) instantaneous training in terms of non-duality.
Its four topics include (i) the buddha body of essentiality, (ii) the buddha body of gnosis and reality, (ii) the buddha body of perfect resource, and (iv) the buddha body of emanation.
In terms of The Ten Thousand Lines, we can see that the parallel passages of the Sanskrit edition of the recast manuscript, following Dutt and Kimura, suggest that chapters 1–14 pertain to the understanding of all phenomena, chapters 15–18a pertain to the understanding of the aspects of the path, and chapters 18b–19 pertain to the understanding of omniscience. Chapters 20–25a pertain to training in the clear realization of all phenomena, chapters 25b–28a pertain to the training in culminating clear realization and serial clear realization, and chapters 28b–30 pertain to the training in instantaneous clear realization. Chapter 31 explores the indications of irreversible bodhisattvas, chapter 32 pertains to the fruitional attainment of the buddha attributes, and chapter 33 concludes the sūtra with the admonishments that it should be respected, maintained, and entrusted for the sake of posterity.
In the following summary, the eight aspects appear as subtitles with the same Roman numerals as in the list above. The thirty-three chapters are unevenly distributed among them.
The first fourteen chapters of the text concern the theoretical understanding of all phenomena, which is the first goal to be realized. Śāradvatīputra acts as Lord Buddha’s interlocutor in the first nine chapters, with Subhūti making his initial appearance in chapter 10.
In response to a question about what is the transcendent perfection of wisdom which bodhisattvas are to perfect, Lord Buddha replies that it is the absence of fixation with respect to all phenomena, all meditative experiences, all causal attributes acquired by bodhisattvas, all fruitional attributes manifested by buddhas, and all attainments up to and including omniscience. along with unconditioned phenomena, such as the abiding nature of all things and the finality of existence, these are all attributes with respect to which a great bodhisattva being should cultivate detachment. Bodhisattvas do perceive such phenomena distinctly, but only on the relative level; in an ultimate sense they consider them to be illusory, in the manner of a dream and so forth.
Fixation may ensue when those phenomena and attributes are considered as permanent or impermanent, as conducive to happiness or suffering, with self or without self, empty or not empty, with signs or signless, having or lacking aspirations, calm or not calm, void or not void, afflicted or purified, arising or not arising, ceasing or not ceasing, and as entities or non-entities. Deluded minds would view these phenomena and attributes as absolutely existent whereas bodhisattvas should train so as to understand that they are all non-apprehensible—mere designations and conceptualizations.
Bodhisattvas do not consider whether or not they are engaged in union with all those phenomena and attributes. Owing to the emptiness of intrinsic defining characteristics, they neither associate anything with nor disassociate anything from anything else. They do not consider whether certain things are connected with other things because nothing is connected with any other thing. Indeed, the nature of phenomena is emptiness—non-arising, non-ceasing, neither afflicted nor purified.
Bodhisattvas will approach omniscience, attaining complete purity of body, speech, and mind, as well as freedom from afflicted mental states, and then they will bring sentient beings to maturation until they attain manifestly perfect buddhahood. Bodhisattvas who practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom in this manner will perfect all the other transcendent perfections, whereby they will attain genuinely perfect enlightenment. Since phenomena are invariably non-apprehensible and notions about them are also non-apprehensible, how could the designations of phenomena constitute a bodhisattva?
The term “great bodhisattva being” is meaningless, non-existent like a dream or like the tracks of a bird in the sky. Just as the notions of a buddha’s degenerate morality, mental distraction, stupidity, non-liberation, and misperception are all without foundation, the notion of a great bodhisattva being abiding in the transcendent perfection of wisdom is also non-existent, because all phenomena and attributes are without foundation, neither conjoined nor disjoined, and they are immaterial, unrevealed, and unobstructed. Their only defining characteristic is that they lack defining characteristics. Yet, it is only when bodhisattvas have trained in the transcendent perfection of wisdom without apprehending anything that they will attain omniscience.
Unskilled bodhisattvas without an authentic teacher will be afraid when they hear this, but, with skill in means, they will discern that all things are impermanent and so on, and will not apprehend them. Attentive without apprehending anything, without dogmatic assumptions, they will discern that all phenomena and attributes are even empty of their own emptiness. So it is that those seeking to perfect the transcendent perfections, to comprehend all phenomena, and to abandon afflicted mental states, as well as all fetters, latent impulses, and obsessions should train in this transcendent perfection of wisdom.
Authentic spiritual mentors are those who teach, without apprehending anything, that all phenomena are impermanent, and so forth, dedicating their roots of virtue exclusively to omniscience. Encouraging bodhisattvas to cultivate the causal and fruitional attributes, they teach, without apprehending anything, that all things are void.
However, if bodhisattvas cultivate the transcendent perfections and apprehend them, attentive to the causal and fruitional attributes, they will make assumptions and fall into the hands of others who would dissuade them from their course on the grounds that the transcendent perfections are the non-canonical fabrications of poets and of malign forces. Māra could even appear in the guise of a buddha to discourage them from practicing the transcendent perfections, or persuade them that they cannot become irreversible bodhisattvas, or even that the attainment of manifestly perfect buddhahood is itself impossible.
On the other hand, when bodhisattvas teach, without apprehending anything, in order that sentient beings might abandon their nihilist and eternalist views, or their notions concerning phenomena or causal and fruitional attributes—all this indicates that they will have been accepted by an authentic teacher.
The immaturity of a bodhisattva manifests when those who have previously regressed fail to enter into the maturity of the bodhisattvas. Unskilled in the transcendent perfections, they instead actualize lesser attainments, craving for the teachings because they become fixated on the notions that all phenomena, and causal and fruitional attributes, are impermanent, and so forth.
On the other hand, skillful bodhisattvas do not make assumptions about anything, even the enlightened mind, because the intrinsic nature of this mind is luminosity, without afflicted mental states, obsessions, fetters, or latent impulses. Just as this natural luminosity of the mind is unchanging and without conceptual notions, so are all phenomena, or causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments unchanging and without conceptual notions. The transcendent perfections are skillfully cultivated by discerning, without apprehending anything, that thoughts of miserliness, degenerate morality, agitation, indolence, distraction, and stupidity are all non-entities. All this characterizes the maturity of great bodhisattva beings who proceed on the path to enlightenment. They cannot be overcome by anyone and will never regress or become impoverished. They will perceive numerous buddhas and listen to their sacred teachings, but without conceptual notions.
Whenever bodhisattvas practice any of the six transcendent perfections and don the great armor for the sake of all sentient beings, they also engage with all the other five transcendent perfections. Their generosity is characterized by the giver, gift, and recipient being non-apprehensible; their ethical discipline by a lack of fascination with lower attainments; their tolerance by endurance and confidence; their perseverance by indefatigability, relentlessness, and tenacity; their meditative concentration by disinterest in lesser goals; and their wisdom by understanding the illusory nature of all phenomena. When bodhisattvas practice these six transcendent perfections, they achieve and maintain the various meditative states, replete with the appropriate signs of successful practice, and then, attaining omniscience, they arise from these meditative states and communicate them successfully to others.
When they understand the aspects of emptiness and practice the transcendent perfections without apprehending anything, they do not apprehend the transcendent perfections, or their cultivators. Instead they cultivate all the causal and fruitional attributes in order to put an end to cultivation, and they do so without apprehending anything. Because beings are non-apprehensible, the term “bodhisattva” is understood to be a mere conventional expression, as are all phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments. Despite their achievements, they are without any notion whatsoever.
Bodhisattvas should don the armor of the transcendent perfections, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments and send forth emanations and resources to benefit sentient beings. In the manner of an illusionist, they offer resources to the needy, they appear to establish others in virtuous actions, they exhibit tolerance when attacked by imaginary assailants, they encourage others to pursue virtuous paths with perseverance, they establish others in meditative concentration, and they do not apprehend anything arising, ceasing, afflicted, or purified. The reality of illusion is the reality of all things. Maintaining the transcendent perfections, they establish sentient beings therein until they too have attained manifestly perfect buddhahood. And yet, bodhisattvas should know that they are seeking a non-existent armor because all phenomena, attributes, bodhisattvas and even the great armor itself are all inherently empty. Omniscience is uncreated and unconditioned, as are the beings for whom bodhisattvas don the great armor. Resembling dreams, all things are unfettered and unliberated.
Even though bodhisattvas may refine the five eyes until the fruits of arhatship, individual enlightenment, or manifestly perfect buddhahood are attained, they should not dwell upon notions which are all non-apprehensible. Unskilled bodhisattvas who resort to notions of “I” and “mine” will not attain omniscience. The transcendent perfection of wisdom cannot be appropriated, owing to the emptiness of inherent existence. Therefore, bodhisattvas should determine that all things are empty of inherent existence, without mental wandering.
This spacious and indefinable method of the bodhisattvas, known as the maṇḍala of the meditative stability of non-appropriation, is unknown to others. Owing to the non-appropriation of all things, and the non-existence of transmigration at the time of death, bodhisattvas do not make assumptions. Instead, they determine that, owing to emptiness, the absence of objective referents denotes the transcendent perfection of wisdom. If bodhisattvas are not disheartened when they make this determination, they will never be separated from the transcendent perfection of wisdom. Undertaking this training, they will attain omniscience.
Unskilled bodhisattvas who engage with phenomena, attributes, notions of permanence, and so forth, will merely engage with mental images and dualistic concepts, and will not be released from cyclic existence. On the other hand, when bodhisattvas skillfully practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom, owing to emptiness they do not engage with anything at all. Since everything has the essential nature of non-entity, they have not appropriated anything.
There are one hundred and eleven non-acquisitive meditative stabilities of the bodhisattvas through which they will swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood. Without considering or making dualistic assumptions about any of those meditative stabilities, bodhisattvas are naturally absorbed in meditation, and inseparable from them, without conceptual imaginations. So it is that they train in the transcendent perfections, causal and fruitional attributes, without apprehending anything.
Owing to the utter purity of all things, they do not apprehend anything at all; since nothing arises or ceases, nothing is afflicted or purified. Through adherence to the two extremes of eternalism and nihilism, ordinary people imagine phenomena and attributes that are non-existent, and become fixated on them. They will not attain emancipation from cyclic existence, failing to understand that all things are emptiness, and lacking stability in the transcendent perfections.
The Great Vehicle will not come to rest anywhere because resting is non-apprehensible. No one will attain emancipation by means of this vehicle because all attributes and attainments associated with this vehicle are non-existent and non-apprehensible, owing to their utter purity. When bodhisattvas practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom in that manner, owing to the fact that all things are non-apprehensible, they will attain emancipation by means of the Great Vehicle in the state of omniscience. This Great Vehicle overpowers and attains emancipation from cyclic existence which is merely imagined, fabricated, and verbally constructed. The Great Vehicle comprises all meditative experiences and causal and fruitional attributes, and it is analogous to space, in that therein motion, rest, direction, shape, color, time, flux, arising, cessation, virtue, non-virtue, sense objects, and so forth, are not discernible. The Great Vehicle accommodates innumerable sentient beings, in the manner of space.
This Great Vehicle does not apprehend afflicted mental states or their absence, nor does it apprehend notions of permanence and impermanence, self and non-self, and so forth. The term “bodhisattva” designates one who is intent on enlightenment, on the basis of which the indications and signs of the causal and fruitional attributes are known without fixation, but the transcendent perfection of wisdom is far removed from all phenomena, afflicted mental states and opinions, and from the causal and fruitional attributes and attainments.
Bodhisattvas do not investigate the notions that these are imbued with happiness and suffering because all things are inherently empty—non-arising, non-ceasing, without duality, neither conjoined nor disjoined—and they share a single defining characteristic in that they are all immaterial, unrevealed, unimpeded, and without defining characteristics.
Once bodhisattvas have developed, without apprehending anything, the notion of sentient beings as their father, mother, or child, with their minds set on genuinely perfect enlightenment, they see that all notions of self and the like are entirely non-existent and non-apprehensible. Relatively speaking, there are attainments and clear realizations, but, ultimately, there are no attainment, no clear realization, no realized beings and no ordinary beings. It is because all phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes and attainments, are empty of inherent existence that bodhisattvas will refine them.
The theoretical understanding of the aspects of the bodhisattva path is the focus of the next section of the sūtra, commencing with chapter 15 and continuing through the first part of chapter 18. Here, Śakra and various divine princes in his entourage participate in the dialogue—both telepathically and verbally—alongside Lord Buddha, Subhūti and Śāradvatiputra.
Bodhisattvas who have cultivated omniscience should be attentive, without apprehending anything, to the notions that all things are impermanent, imbued with suffering, calm, void, and so forth. They should be attentive, without apprehending anything, to the origination of suffering and to the cessation of suffering. They should cultivate the causal and fruitional attributes and practice the transcendent perfections, without apprehending anything. They discern that the concepts of “I” and ”mine” and even thoughts of dedication are utterly non-existent and non-apprehensible in the enlightened mind. This is the transcendent perfection of wisdom, which is non-referential in all respects. Bodhisattvas should not dwell on anything or on any notion that they should perfect the transcendent perfections and establish countless beings in genuinely perfect enlightenment.
Just as when, in a dream, a buddha is seen teaching, nothing at all is said or heard by anyone, so all things are like dreams—the enlightenment of the buddhas is inexpressible. No one who seeks to actualize the fruits of attainment can do so without accepting that phenomena are non-arising.
The sacred doctrine, those who teach it, and sentient beings who receive it all resemble a magical display, a dream, and so on. This transcendent perfection of wisdom, which is so profound, so hard to discern, and so hard to realize will be received by irreversible bodhisattvas who do not construe the notion that things are empty, signless, aspirationless, non-arising, unceasing, void, and calm. There is no one to receive this transcendent perfection of wisdom because nothing at all is expressed and there are no beings who will receive it. The three vehicles, the nature of all phenomena, and attributes and attainments have been taught, but exclusively without apprehending anything, owing to the aspects of emptiness.
When bodhisattvas have heard this transcendent perfection of wisdom, there are malign forces which will seek to harm them, but to no avail, because all things are without inherent existence. Since they cultivate thoughts of loving kindness, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity toward all sentient beings, without apprehending anything, they will not die in unfavorable circumstances because they furnish all sentient beings with genuine happiness and gain their respect. In dependence on such bodhisattvas the ten virtuous actions, meditative experiences, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments become manifest.
The transcendent perfection of wisdom sheds light and dispels the blindness of afflicted mental states and all false views owing to its utter purity. It secures happiness, demonstrating the path to those who go astray. It is omniscience, the mother of bodhisattvas, because it generates all buddha attributes. Just as the blind cannot get around without a guide, the five other transcendent perfections have no scope to attain omniscience unguided by the transcendent perfection of wisdom. Yet, this transcendent perfection of wisdom is actualized owing to the non-actualization of all things because they are non-arising, non-apprehensible, and do not disintegrate. Nothing at all will be attained because the transcendent perfection of wisdom does not establish anything at all in an apprehending manner, not even omniscience. Despite that, bodhisattvas do not undervalue the transcendent perfection of wisdom. Those who retain it will never be separated from omniscience. Those who commit it to writing in the form of a book and make offerings to it will accrue advantages in this life and the next. They will always be protected, everyone will rejoice in them, and they will be capable of warding off all refutations.
Since bodhisattvas have come into this world, having made offerings to innumerable buddhas, when they see or hear the transcendent perfection of wisdom they will realize it in a signless, non-dual, and non-focusing manner. All phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments are neither fettered nor liberated, since their natural expression remains unchanged. All things are pure owing to the indivisible purity of sentient beings and afflicted mental states. This purity is not subject to affliction due to the natural luminosity of all phenomena, attributes, and attainments. It is neither attained nor manifestly realized, and it has not been actualized. Nor is this purity cognizant of anything, due to the emptiness of inherent existence. The transcendent perfection of wisdom neither helps nor hinders omniscience and it does not appropriate anything at all.17
The theoretical understanding of omniscience is the focus of the next section of the sūtra, commencing with the second part of chapter 18 and continuing through chapter 19.
Skillful bodhisattvas, on account of emptiness, are without dualistic perceptions and conceptual notions. If they were to cognize their own minds, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments, and dedicate these to genuinely perfect enlightenment in a self-conscious manner, they would be incapable of practicing the transcendent perfection of wisdom without attachment. Rather, they delight others, discerning the sameness of all things, inattentive to conceptual notions, and forsaking all limits of attachment. Since the transcendent perfection of wisdom is unfabricated and unconditioned, there is no one at all who can attain manifestly perfect buddhahood. When bodhisattvas know this, they will abandon all the limits of attachment.
The transcendent perfection of wisdom is an agent that has no actions because it is non-apprehensible. Bodhisattvas who are not disheartened and who do not turn away from genuinely perfect enlightenment will achieve that which is difficult because this cultivation of the transcendent perfections is like cultivating space. In space, no phenomena, attributes, or attainments are discerned. Those bodhisattvas who would don protective armor, seeking to liberate beings from cyclic existence, are actually seeking to buttress the sky and they acquire great perseverance. Whenever they practice without making assumptions, they discern that phenomena are like a dream, and so on.
This transcendent perfection of wisdom is absolutely pure. Through it bodhisattvas attain manifestly perfect buddhahood, and turn the wheel of the sacred doctrine, even though nothing at all is set in motion or reversed because, in emptiness, there is nothing apprehensible, nothing that arises or ceases, nothing that is afflicted or purified, and nothing that is to be retained or forsaken. All things are invariably unactualized because emptiness, signlessness, and aspirationlessness do not set in motion or reverse anything at all.
After the three theoretical sections of the sūtra, the next four concern their practical implementation through training. Among them, the fourth section, entitled “Clear Realization of all Phenomena,” commences from chapter 20 and continues through the first part of chapter 25. It integrates all the aforementioned categories of phenomena, meditative experiences, and the causal and fruitional attributes from the perspective of training.
The transcendent perfection of wisdom is infinite, void, beyond limitations, non-existent, inexpressible, dreamlike, empty, without defining characteristics, and so forth—all owing to its non-apprehension. For the sake of the world, the buddhas have expressed it in conventional terms, but that is not the case in ultimate reality. For instance, the defining characteristics of the five aggregates are respectively their materiality, emotional experience, comprehensibility, conditioning, and particularizing intrinsic awareness. The defining characteristic of the six transcendent perfections are respectively renunciation, non-involvement, imperturbability, uncrushability, undistractedness, and non-fixation. The defining characteristic of the meditative experiences is non-disturbance, and so on. However, the tathāgatas attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in the absence of all these defining characteristics.
This transcendent perfection of wisdom is established by means of great deeds, unappraisable deeds, innumerable deeds, and deeds that are equal to the unequaled. Just as a king may delegate all his royal duties to senior ministers, relinquishing responsibility so that he has few concerns, in the same way all things are subsumed within the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and implemented by it. This is profound, hard to discern, and hard to realize! Bodhisattvas who have come to accept that phenomena are non-arising have this superior understanding. Anyone who has committed this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom to writing will swiftly attain genuinely perfect buddhahood.
Just as shipwrecked people without a life raft will die without reaching the ocean shore and those who have one will safely reach dry land, bodhisattvas who do not commit it to writing will regress, without reaching the maturity of the bodhisattvas. However, if they relentlessly persevere until genuinely perfect enlightenment is attained, and commit this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom to writing and train earnestly in it, they will not regress. Having brought sentient beings to maturity, they will attain manifestly perfect buddhahood.
Briefly stated, unskilled bodhisattvas think in a dualistic manner, making assumptions about the six transcendent perfections although there are no such concepts. Skilled bodhisattvas who practice the six transcendent perfections without resorting to notions of “I” and “mine” do not make assumptions about the transcendent perfections. Without regression, they will attain genuinely perfect enlightenment.
Those bodhisattvas who strive toward genuinely perfect enlightenment are engaged in a difficult task, inasmuch as all things are empty of their own defining characteristics. Even so, having understood that all things are like an illusion and dreamlike, they set out toward genuinely perfect enlightenment for the benefit, well-being, and happiness of all worlds as a sanctuary, a protector, a refuge, an ally, an island, a torch-bearer, a lamp, a helmsman, a guide, and a support. This cultivation of the transcendent perfection of wisdom is the non-cultivation of phenomena, attributes, and attainments.
Bodhisattvas of irreversible realization should investigate everything without fixation. They will not be swayed by the pointless words of others or captivated by afflicted mental states. They will not be separated from the other transcendent perfections and will not be afraid when they hear this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom. Their minds will not be averted from genuinely perfect enlightenment. They will delight in hearing this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom and retain it in the appropriate manner. When these bodhisattvas are successful in their practice, their realization will be irreversible.
This profound transcendent perfection of wisdom is hard to realize, for which reason the mind of the buddhas is inclined toward carefree inaction and not toward teaching. Manifestly perfect buddhahood has not been attained by anyone, anywhere. This is the profundity of all things, in which habitual ideas of duality do not at all exist. Just as the real nature of the buddhas is unobstructed, undifferentiated, non-particular, and without duality, so is the real nature of all things.
Just as a wingless bird will be mortally injured on its descent, it is inevitable that unskilled bodhisattvas who lack the transcendent perfection of wisdom will regress. On the other hand, skillful bodhisattvas whose minds are imbued with great compassion, and who cultivate emptiness, signlessness, and aspirationlessness, enter into the maturity of the bodhisattvas, without conceptualizing or apprehending anything, and attain manifestly perfect buddhahood.
It may seem that genuinely perfect enlightenment is easy to manifest because all things are empty of their own essential nature. However, this is exactly why it is hard to bring forth genuinely perfect enlightenment. Once bodhisattvas accept that all things resemble space, they will attain manifestly perfect buddhahood, but if it were easy for them to do so, bodhisattvas who don the protective armor would not regress.
Bodhisattvas who wish to attain genuinely perfect enlightenment should cultivate equanimity with respect to all sentient beings, addressing them with gentle words. They should cultivate an attitude free from enmity, regarding all sentient beings as their close relatives or peers. They should abstain from non-virtuous actions and encourage others to do so. They should engage in meditative experiences, and rejoice in others who do so. They should cultivate the causal and fruitional attributes, and rejoice in others who do so—all without apprehending anything.
Moreover, bodhisattvas should comprehend suffering, abandon the origin of suffering, actualize the cessation of suffering, and cultivate the path that leads to the cessation of suffering, and they should rejoice in others who do so. They should bring sentient beings to maturation, refine the buddhafields,18 and rejoice in others who do likewise.
Bodhisattvas should determine that phenomena and cyclic existence are empty, but they should do so with an unwavering mind. Just as a heroic man can escort relatives safely home through a terrifying wilderness by the power of discernment, bodhisattvas who have achieved and maintain a state of mind imbued with the four immeasurable aspirations and the six transcendent perfections will continue to search for omniscience, and even though they are established in emptiness, signlessness, and aspirationlessness, they will not be swayed into regression without perfecting the attainment of omniscience.
Bodhisattvas analyze the causal and fruitional attributes, resolving to attain manifestly perfect buddhahood for the sake of sentient beings who mistakenly continue to apprehend phenomena, but they will not actualize the finality of existence, through which they would regress to lesser attainments. Even though there are many bodhisattvas engaged in the pursuit of enlightenment, few of them have precisely investigated the six transcendent perfections on the irreversible level and avoided regression.
The fifth section of the sūtra, “Culminating Clear Realization,” includes the four trainings on the path of preparation (warmth, peak, acceptance and supremacy), as well as the training on the paths of insight and cultivation, ending with the adamantine meditative stability and the elimination of mistaken notions. It extends from the second part of chapter 25 through to the end of chapter 27.
When bodhisattvas train in the real nature of all things, they do train in the causal and fruitional attributes, and they will swiftly attain the level of an irreversible bodhisattva. Only bodhisattvas who wish to liberate all sentient beings from cyclic existence can undertake this training, and when they have done so, they will never be disadvantaged or separated from the sacred doctrine. They become absorbed in meditative experiences, but on arising from these, they will not linger in blissful states. Instead, they will refine all the fruitional attributes, without regression.
Bodhisattvas who wish to become a protector and refuge to all those sentient beings who are unprotected and without a refuge, who wish to become an ally of those who are without allies, who wish to become an eye to the blind, who wish to become a lamp for sentient beings who are immersed in the darkness of fundamental ignorance, who wish to attain genuinely perfect buddhahood, who wish to roar the lion’s roar of the completely perfect buddhas, and so forth, should all train in this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom, and swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood.
Those bodhisattvas will never regress from genuinely perfect enlightenment, but, seeing the sufferings of cyclic existence, they will resolve to benefit the whole world and alleviate its sufferings. Abandoning all thoughts, concepts, and imaginations, in one sense they do not in the slightest achieve anything difficult because they do not apprehend anything that could be actualized.
However, the astonishing singular difficulty is not that they do not regress to lower attainments, but that they don the armor that resolves to establish innumerable sentient beings in buddhahood, while those beings whom they would guide are utterly non-apprehensible. Bodhisattvas who, for the sake of sentient beings, think they should don the armor of great compassion would as well think they should seek to do battle with space. If, when this is explained they are not discouraged, then they are practicing the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and, free from doubt, they will gradually come to rest on the irreversible levels, and attain omniscience.
Bodhisattvas who practice each one of the transcendent perfections acquire each of the other transcendent perfections through physical, verbal, and mental acts of loving kindness, and through abstinence, courage, persistence, lack of enmity, and an attitude that regards gifts and recipients in a non-dualistic, non-focusing, and illusion-like manner. They may enter into and arise from their meditative experiences sequentially, or they may enter into the meditative stability known as the yawning lion, in which the formless absorptions and meditative concentrations are reversed. Abiding in this meditative stability, they attain the sameness of all things.
The sixth section of the sūtra, “Serial Clear Realization,” includes the serial trainings in the six transcendent perfections, the serial trainings in the six recollections, and the serial training in the realization that phenomena are without essential nature. This section is omitted from this version of the sūtra, which continues instead with section seven, “Instantaneous Clear Realization.”
This has four topics: maturation, non-maturation, lack of defining characteristics, and non-duality.
Bodhisattvas practice the transcendent perfections for the sake of all sentient beings, assuming the five aggregates which are dreamlike, without essential nature, and without defining characteristics. They perfect all meditative experiences and all causal and fruitional attributes, and then, participating in cyclic existence for the sake of all sentient beings, they are untainted by the defects of cyclic existence. Understanding that all things are without defining characteristics, they go on to attain omniscience. Owing to the emptiness of essential nature and the emptiness of ultimate reality, they do not conceptualize and they come to accept that phenomena are non-arising. Having brought sentient beings to maturation, they will attain manifestly perfect buddhahood by means of instantaneous wisdom. Well trained in emptiness, they do not apprehend anything at all apart from emptiness. All apprehension of phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments constitutes the immaturity of the bodhisattvas. The absence of all apprehension constitutes the maturity of the bodhisattvas. The bodhisattvas who practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom perceive that all things are gathered within it, but do not apprehend anything, owing to non-duality. All things are undifferentiated, without defining characteristics, and subject neither to arising nor cessation.
The last section of the sūtra, concerning the fruitional buddha body of reality, comprises the buddha body of essentiality, the buddha body of gnosis and reality, the buddha body of perfect resource, and the buddha body of emanation. It extends from the second part of chapter 28 through to the end of chapter 30.
Investigating conditioned phenomena through emptiness, bodhisattvas teach ordinary people who grasp dreams as reality that all phenomena are empty of notions of “I” and “mine.” Since all phenomena arise from dependent origination, and are grasped erroneously through the maturation of past actions, what other cause can there be for their perception of non-entities as entities? Skillful bodhisattvas cause sentient beings to engage successively with each of the six transcendent perfections and then to turn away from states of indulgence to enter into the expanse of final nirvāṇa, or at least to become established in the causal and fruitional attributes. Although all things are dreamlike non-entities, abiding in the six transcendent perfections, bodhisattvas attract sentient beings by their practice of the six transcendent perfections.
Bodhisattvas attract sentient beings with the mundane and supramundane gifts of the sacred doctrine. The former concerns mundane phenomena and meditative experiences. The latter establishes sentient beings through skill in means in the causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments, so that they renounce afflicted mental states, and all propensities for rebirth. Once bodhisattvas have attained omniscience, they will be called buddhas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One19 was residing at Vulture Peak near Rājagṛha with a large monastic gathering comprising many thousands of fully ordained monks. All of them were arhats who had attained the cessation of contaminants and were without afflicted mental states, fully controlled, their minds thoroughly liberated, their wisdom well liberated, thoroughbreds, mighty nāgas, their tasks accomplished, their work completed, their burdens relinquished, their own objectives already fulfilled, the fetters binding them to the rebirth process completely severed, their minds thoroughly liberated through their genuine understanding, having perfected the highest of all mental faculties, with the exception of one person—the venerable Ānanda, a disciple who had merely entered the stream. Also present were some five hundred fully ordained nuns, laymen, and laywomen, all of whom had seen the truth.20
There, too, were many thousands of great bodhisattva beings, all of whom had mastered the dhāraṇīs and attained the meditative stabilities,21 and were abiding in emptiness, their perceptual range being one of signlessness, their aspirations free from discrimination, their attainments the acceptance of sameness and inspired eloquence that was unimpeded. Indeed they all had the five extrasensory powers22 and captivating speech. Their ethical conduct was without artificiality and they had no thoughts of ulterior profit, acquisition, or fame.
They could teach the sacred doctrine, free from worldliness. They had perfected their acceptance of the profound nature of phenomena; they had acquired assurance and completely gone beyond demonic activities. Liberated from all obscurations associated with past actions, they had accumulated merits by teaching the sacred doctrine, extensively accumulating their aspirations over countless eons.[F.2.a] Their speech was honest with a smiling demeanor, their countenances without frowns of anger. They possessed the assurance that overwhelms endless assemblies. They were skilled in their emancipation from cyclic existence, as they had demonstrated for many tens of millions of eons.
They regarded phenomena as a magical display, a mirage, a dream, the moon reflected in water, an optical aberration, empty space, an echo, a castle in the sky, or a phantom, and they were endowed with immeasurable assurance. They were skilled in comprehending the mental attitudes and interests of all sentient beings, and the knowledge that engages in subtlety.23 Toward all sentient beings their attitude was without any animosity and imbued with great tolerance. They were skilled in definitively introducing them to the nature of reality. They held them in their aspirations for infinite buddhafields. At all times they uninterruptedly actualized the meditative stability that recollects the buddhas of countless world systems. They were well-versed in questioning the innumerable buddhas, and skillful in the abandoning of afflicted mental states motivated by diverse mistaken views. They were all bodhisattvas who knew how to actualize one hundred thousand emanational displays by means of their meditative stability.
Among them were the following:24 the great being Bhadrapāla, along with Ratnākara, Sārthavāha, Naradatta, Grahadatta,25 Varuṇadatta, Indradatta, Uttaramati, Viśeṣamati, Vardhamānamati, Amoghadarśin, Susaṃprasthita, Suvikrāntavikrāmin, Nityodyukta, Anikṣiptadhura, Sūryagarbha, Candragarbha, Anupamacintin, Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī, Ratnamudrāhasta, the bodhisattva Nityotkṣiptahasta and the great bodhisattva being Maitreya,[F.2.b] heading many thousands of accompanying bodhisattvas, all of whom were youthful in appearance.
At that time, the Blessed One outshone Śakra, Brahmā, and all the worldly protectors. Then, in the presence of these four assemblies, he demonstrated multiple miraculous forms, vivid, brilliant and distinct, which were emanated through his magical abilities. Also, from all the pores of his body, an effulgence of light rays shone forth—many hundreds of billion trillions in number.
Thereupon, the venerable Śāradvatīputra, who was present within the assembly, observed those miraculous forms emanated through the miraculous abilities of the Tathāgata. He was delighted. He rejoiced. His extreme joy gave rise to such delight and contentment that, rising from his seat, with his upper robe over one shoulder, he rested his right knee on the ground and placed his hands together in the gesture of homage, facing in the direction of Blessed One, while asking the Blessed One as follows: “If I might be permitted to request the Reverend Lord to pronounce on them, may I put certain questions to the Reverend Lord?”
The Blessed One then replied to the venerable Śāradvatīputra, “Śāradvatīputra, since you always have had opportunities to question the Tathāgata, you may ask whatever you wish, and you should be satisfied with the answers to your questions.”
The venerable Śāradvatīputra then asked the Blessed One, “Reverend Lord, with regard to that which is called the transcendent perfection of wisdom,26 Reverend Lord, what exactly is the transcendent perfection of wisdom of the bodhisattvas? By perfecting what sacred doctrine do bodhisattvas perfect the transcendent perfection of wisdom and swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed, genuinely perfect enlightenment?”[F.3.a]
Thereupon, the Blessed One inspired the venerable Śāradvatīputra with the words, “Excellent, Śāradvatīputra! Excellent! Excellent! Through the blessings of the Tathāgata you have made a splendid request. You have had an excellent idea! To that end, you should listen carefully, keep my words in mind, and I shall teach the transcendent perfection of wisdom.”
“Reverend Lord, so be it!” he replied.
So it was that the venerable Śāradvatīputra listened to the Blessed One, and the Lord replied, “Śāradvatīputra, that which is called the transcendent perfection of wisdom is the absence of fixation with respect to all things. Śāradvatīputra, bodhisattvas who are without fixation perfect the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and will indeed swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed and genuinely perfect enlightenment.”
Then he asked, “Reverend Lord, what are all those things on which great bodhisattva beings27 should not be fixated?”
The Blessed One replied, “Śāradvatīputra, the expression ‘all things’ denotes the following: the five psycho-physical aggregates, the twelve sense fields, the eighteen sensory elements, the four noble truths, the twelve links of dependent origination, the four applications of mindfulness, the four correct exertions, the four supports for miraculous ability, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven branches of enlightenment, the noble eightfold path, the emptiness that is a gateway to liberation, the signlessness that is a gateway to liberation, the aspirationlessness that is a gateway to liberation, the four meditative concentrations, the four immeasurable aspirations, the four formless meditative absorptions, the eight aspects of liberation, the nine serial steps of meditative absorption, the nine contemplations of impurity, the ten recollections, the six aspects of perception,[F.3.b] the knowledge of phenomena, the subsequent knowledge, the knowledge of other minds, the knowledge of relative appearances, the knowledge of suffering, the knowledge of the origin of suffering, the knowledge of the cessation of suffering, the knowledge of the path, the knowledge of the extinction of contaminants, the knowledge that contaminants will not be regenerated, the knowledge that is definitive, and similarly, the meditative stability endowed with ideation and scrutiny, the meditative stability free from ideation and merely endowed with scrutiny, the meditative stability free from both ideation and scrutiny, the faculties that will enable knowledge of all that is unknown, the faculties that acquire the knowledge of all things, the faculties endowed with the knowledge of all things, the eight sense fields of mastery, the ten sense fields of total consummation, the eighteen aspects of emptiness, the ten powers of the tathāgatas, the four assurances, the four kinds of exact knowledge, great loving kindness, great compassion, the eighteen distinct qualities of the buddhas, and likewise, the understanding of all phenomena, the understanding of the aspects of the path, the understanding of omniscience, the six transcendent perfections, the five extrasensory powers,28 the five eyes, the thirty-two major marks of a superior man, and the eighty excellent minor marks.29 All these are the things on which great bodhisattva beings should not be fixated. One who is without fixation perfects the transcendent perfection of wisdom and will also swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed and genuinely perfect enlightenment.”
Then the venerable Śāradvatīputra asked the Blessed One, “Reverend Lord, what are the ‘five psycho-physical aggregates’ and likewise [those other phenomena], up to and including the ‘twelve links of dependent origination’? What are the ‘four applications of mindfulness’, and likewise [those other causal attributes] up to and including the ‘noble eightfold path’? What is the ‘emptiness that is a gateway to liberation,’ and likewise [those other attainments], up to and including ‘omniscience’? What are the ‘six transcendent perfections,’[F.4.a] and likewise [those other fruitional attributes], up to and including the ‘eighty minor marks’?”
Thereupon, the Blessed One addressed the venerable Śāradvatīputra as follows: “Śāradvatīputra, the ‘five psycho-physical aggregates’ comprise (1) physical forms, (2) feelings, (3) perceptions, (4) formative predispositions, and (5) consciousness.
“If you ask what are the ‘twelve sense fields,’ they comprise six that are inner and six that are outer. These are called the twelve sense fields. Among them, if you ask what are the ‘six inner sense fields,’ they comprise (1) the sense field of the eyes, (2) the sense field of the ears, (3) the sense field of the nose, (4) the sense field of the tongue, (5) the sense field of the body, and (6) the sense field of the mental faculty. These are called the six inner sense fields.
“Then, if you ask what are the ‘six outer sense fields,’ they comprise (7) the sense field of sights, (8) the sense field of sounds, (9) the sense field of odors, (10) the sense field of tastes, (11) the sense field of tangibles, and (12) the sense field of mental phenomena. These are called the six outer sense fields.30
“If you ask what are the ‘eighteen sensory elements,’ they comprise (1) the sensory element of the eyes, (2) the sensory element of sights, and (3) the sensory element of visual consciousness; (4) the sensory element of the ears, (5) the sensory element of sounds, and (6) the sensory element of auditory consciousness; (7) the sensory element of the nose, (8) the sensory element of odors, and (9) the sensory element of olfactory consciousness; (10) the sensory element of the tongue, (11) the sensory element of tastes, and (12) the sensory element of gustatory consciousness; (13) the sensory element of the body, (14) the sensory element of tangibles, and (15) the sensory element of tactile consciousness; and (16) the sensory element of the mental faculty, (17) the sensory element of mental phenomena, and (18) the sensory element of mental consciousness. These are called the eighteen sensory elements.31
“If you ask what are the ‘four noble truths,’ they comprise (1) the noble truth of suffering, (2) the noble truth of the origin of suffering, (3) the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and (4) the noble truth of the path. These are called the four noble truths.32
“If you ask what are the ‘twelve links of dependent origination,’ they comprise (1) fundamental ignorance, contingent on which (2) formative predispositions arise; (3) consciousness, which arises contingent on formative predispositions; (4) name and form, which arise contingent on consciousness; (5) the six sense fields, which arise contingent on name and form; (6) sensory contact, which arises contingent on the six sense fields; (7) sensation, which arises contingent on sensory contact;[F.4.b] (8) craving, which arises contingent on sensation; (9) grasping, which arises contingent on craving; (10) the rebirth process, which arises contingent on grasping; (11) actual birth, which arises contingent on the rebirth process; and (12) aging and death, along with sorrow, lamentation, suffering, mental discomfort, and agitation, which all arise contingent on actual birth. It is in this way that these great corporeal aggregates, exclusively endowed with suffering, arise.
“Conversely, through the cessation of fundamental ignorance, formative predispositions cease. Through the cessation of formative predispositions, consciousness ceases. Through the cessation of consciousness, name and form cease. Through the cessation of name and form, the six sense fields cease. Through the cessation of the six sense fields, sensory contact ceases. Through the cessation of sensory contact, sensation ceases. Through the cessation of sensation, craving ceases. Through the cessation of craving, grasping ceases. Through the cessation of grasping, the rebirth process ceases. Through the cessation of the rebirth process, actual birth ceases. Through the cessation of actual birth, aging and death cease; and through the cessation of aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, mental discomfort, and agitation all cease. It is in this way that these corporeal aggregates, exclusively endowed with suffering, cease.
“These two processes are respectively said to follow and reverse the sequence in which the twelve links of dependent origination arise.33
“If you ask what are the ‘four applications of mindfulness,’ they comprise (1) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to the physical body, observes the physical body; (2) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to feelings, observes feelings; (3) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to the mind, observes the mind; and (4) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to phenomena, observes phenomena. These are called the four applications of mindfulness.34
“If you ask what are the ‘four correct exertions,’ (1) great bodhisattva beings resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that negative and non-virtuous attributes which have not yet arisen might not be developed; (2) they resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that negative and non-virtuous attributes which have previously arisen might be renounced;[F.5.a] (3) they resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that virtuous attributes which have not yet arisen might be developed; and (4) they resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that virtuous attributes which have previously arisen might remain, be unforgotten, flourish, and reach complete perfection in the future, through cultivation. These are called the four correct exertions.
“If you ask what are the ‘four supports for miraculous abilities,’ they comprise (1) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of resolution with the formative force of exertion, (2) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of perseverance with the formative force of exertion, (3) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of mind with the formative force of exertion, and (4) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of scrutiny with the formative force of exertion. These are called the four supports for miraculous ability.
“If you ask what are the ‘five faculties,’ they comprise (1) the faculty of faith, (2) the faculty of perseverance, (3) the faculty of recollection, (4) the faculty of meditative stability, and (5) the faculty of wisdom. These are called the five faculties.
“If you ask what are the ‘five powers,’ they similarly comprise (1) the power of faith, (2) the power of perseverance, (3) the power of recollection, (4) the power of meditative stability, and (5) the power of wisdom. These are called the five powers.
“If you ask what are the ‘seven branches of enlightenment,’ they comprise (1) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct recollection, (2) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct doctrinal analysis, (3) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct perseverance, (4) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct delight, (5) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct mental and physical refinement, (6) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct meditative stability, and (7) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct equanimity. These are called the seven branches of enlightenment.
“If you ask what is the ‘noble eightfold path,’ it comprises (1) correct view, (2) correct ideation, (3) correct speech, (4) correct action,[F.5.b] (5) correct livelihood, (6) correct effort, (7) correct recollection, and (8) correct meditative stability. These are the branches of the noble eightfold path.
“If you ask what is ‘emptiness as a gateway to liberation,’ the state of mind which discerns that all things are empty of their own defining characteristics is emptiness as a gateway to liberation. This is called emptiness as a gateway to liberation.
“If you ask what is ‘signlessness as a gateway to liberation,’ the state of mind which discerns in all respects that all things are signless in terms of their own defining characteristics is signlessness as a gateway to liberation. This is called signlessness as a gateway to liberation.
“If you ask what is ‘aspirationlessness as a gateway to liberation,’ the state of mind in which all things are not formed, and there is nothing to be formed, is aspirationlessness as a gateway to liberation. This is called aspirationlessness as a gateway to liberation.35
“If you ask what are the ‘four meditative concentrations,’ they are as follows: (1) Bodhisattvas achieve and maintain the first meditative concentration where there is freedom from desires, and freedom from negative and non-virtuous attributes, while ideation and scrutiny are present, alongside the joy and bliss that arise from freedom. (2) They achieve and maintain the second meditative concentration where there is an intense inner clarity, free from both ideation and scrutiny, the absence of ideation and scrutiny being due to one-pointed mental focus, while the joy and bliss that arise from meditative stability are present. (3) They achieve and maintain the third meditative concentration where joy is absent, abiding in equanimity due to the absence of attachment to joy, while both mindfulness and alertness are present and bliss is experienced by the body. This is what sublime beings describe as ‘mindful, blissful, abiding in bliss, and equanimous.’ (4) They achieve and maintain the fourth meditative concentration where even that sense of bliss is abandoned and former states of suffering have also been eliminated. Here, neither suffering nor bliss is present because blissful and unhappy states of mind have both subsided,[F.6.a] while equanimity and mindfulness are utterly pure. These are called the four meditative concentrations.36
“If you ask what are the ‘four immeasurable aspirations,’ they comprise (1) loving kindness, (2) compassion, (3) empathetic joy, and (4) equanimity. These are called the four immeasurable aspirations.
“If you ask what are the ‘four formless meditative absorptions,’ they comprise (1) the meditative absorption of the sense field of infinite space, (2) the meditative absorption of the sense field of infinite consciousness, (3) the meditative absorption of the sense field of nothing-at-all, and (4) the meditative absorption of neither perception nor non-perception. These are called the four formless meditative absorptions.
“If you ask what constitute the ‘eight aspects of liberation,’ they are as follows: (1) The first aspect of liberation ensues when corporeal beings observe physical forms [in order to compose the mind]. (2) The second aspect of liberation ensues when formless beings endowed with internal perception observe external physical forms. (3) The third aspect of liberation ensues when beings are inclined toward pleasant states. (4) The fourth aspect of liberation ensues when the perceptions of physical forms have been completely transcended in all respects, when the perceptions of obstructed phenomena have subsided, and the mind does not engage with diverse perceptions, so that one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite space, thinking, ‘Space is infinite.’ (5) The fifth aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of infinite space has been completely transcended in all respects, and when one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite consciousness, thinking, ‘Consciousness is infinite.’ (6) The sixth aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of infinite consciousness has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of nothing-at-all, thinking, ‘There is nothing at all.’ (7) The seventh aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of nothing-at-all has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception. (8) The eighth aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the cessation of all perceptions and feelings. These are called the eight aspects of liberation.37[F.6.b]
“If you ask what are the ‘nine serial steps of meditative absorption,’ they are as follows: (1) The first meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the first meditative concentration, that is to say, when there is freedom from desires, and freedom from negative and non-virtuous attributes, while ideation and scrutiny are present, alongside the joy and bliss that arise from freedom. (2) The second meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the second meditative concentration, that is to say, when there is an intense inner clarity, free from both ideation and scrutiny, the absence of ideation and scrutiny being due to one-pointed mental focus, while the joy and bliss that arise from meditative stability are present. (3) The third meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the third meditative concentration, that is to say, when one abides in equanimity due to the absence of attachment to joy, while both mindfulness and alertness are present, and bliss is still experienced by the body. This is what sublime beings describe as ‘mindful, blissful, abiding in bliss, and equanimous.’ (4) The fourth meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the fourth meditative concentration, that is to say, when even that sense of bliss is abandoned and former states of suffering have also been eliminated. Here, neither suffering nor bliss is present because blissful and unhappy states of mind have both subsided, while equanimity and mindfulness are utterly pure. (5) The fifth meditative absorption ensues when the perceptions of physical forms have been completely transcended in all respects, when the perceptions of obstructed, material phenomena have subsided, and the mind does not engage with diverse perceptions, so that one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite space, thinking, ‘Space is infinite.’ (6) The sixth meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of infinite space has been completely transcended in all respects, and when one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite consciousness, thinking, ‘Consciousness is infinite.’ (7) The seventh meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of infinite consciousness has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of nothing-at-all, thinking, ‘There is nothing at all.’[F.7.a] (8) The eighth meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of nothing-at-all has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception. (9) The ninth meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the cessation of all perceptions and feelings. These are called the nine serial steps of meditative absorption.38
“If you ask what are the ‘nine contemplations of impurity,’ they are as follows: (1) contemplation of a bloated corpse, (2) contemplation of a worm-infested corpse, (3) contemplation of a bloody corpse, (4) contemplation of a putrefied corpse, (5) contemplation of a blue-black corpse, (6) contemplation of a devoured corpse, (7) contemplation of a dismembered corpse, (8) contemplation of a skeleton, and (9) contemplation of an immolated corpse. These are called the nine contemplations of impurity.
“If you ask what are the ‘ten recollections,’ they are as follows: (1) recollection of the Buddha, (2) recollection of the Dharma, (3) recollection of the Saṅgha, (4) recollection of ethical discipline, (5) recollection of renunciation, (6) recollection of the god realms, (7) recollection of quiescence, (8) recollection of respiration, (9) recollection of physicality, and (10) recollection of death. These are called the ten recollections.39
“If you ask what are the ‘six aspects of perception,’ they are as follows: (1) perception of impermanence, (2) perception of suffering, (3) perception of non-self, (4) perception of unattractiveness, (5) perception of death, and (6) perception of disinterest in all mundane things. These are called the six aspects of perception.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of phenomena,’ it is the limited understanding that the five psycho-physical aggregates are to be purified. This is called knowledge of phenomena.
“If you ask what is ‘subsequent knowledge,’ it is the understanding that the eye is impermanent, and, likewise, it is the understanding that the ears, nose, tongue, body, mental faculty, sights, sounds, odors, tastes, tangibles, and mental phenomena are all impermanent.[F.7.b] This is called subsequent knowledge.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of other minds,’ it is the absence of doubt with regard to phenomena associated with the minds and mental states of other sentient beings and other individuals. This is called knowledge of other minds.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of relative appearances,’ it is the understanding of the aspects of the path. This is called the knowledge of relative appearances.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of suffering,’ it is the understanding of how suffering arises and endures. That is called the knowledge of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the origin of suffering,’ it is the understanding that the origin of suffering is to be abandoned. This is called knowledge of the origin of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the cessation of suffering,’ it is the understanding that suffering has ceased. This is called knowledge of the cessation of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the path,’ it is the understanding of the noble eightfold path. This is called knowledge of the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the extinction of contaminants,’ it is the understanding that desire, hatred, and delusion have ended. This is called the extinction of contaminants.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge that contaminants will not be regenerated,’ it is the understanding that one will not subsequently be reborn among the living beings of phenomenal existence. This is called the knowledge that contaminants will not be regenerated.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge that is definitive,’ it is the tathāgatas’ gnosis of omniscience. This is called the knowledge that is definitive.40
“If you ask what are the ‘faculties that will enable knowledge of all that is unknown,’ they comprise the faculty of faith, the faculty of perseverance, the faculty of recollection, the faculty of meditative stability, and the faculty of wisdom, which individual trainees who have not attained actual realization acquire. These are called the faculties that will enable knowledge of all that is unknown.41
“If you ask what are the ‘faculties that acquire the knowledge of all things,’ they comprise the faculty of faith, the faculty of perseverance, the faculty of recollection, the faculty of meditative stability, and the faculty of wisdom, of which individual trainees who have attained actual realization partake. These are called the faculties that acquire the knowledge of all things.[F.8.a]
“If you ask what are the ‘faculties endowed with the knowledge of all things,’ they comprise the faculty of faith, the faculty of perseverance, the faculty of recollection, the faculty of meditative stability, and the faculty of wisdom, of which tathāgatas, arhats, genuinely perfect buddhas partake. These are called the faculties endowed with the knowledge of all things.42
“If you ask what is the ‘meditative stability endowed with ideation and scrutiny,’ it denotes the first meditative concentration which is achieved and maintained when there is freedom from desires, and freedom from negative and non-virtuous attributes, while joy and bliss are present. This is called the meditative stability endowed with ideation and scrutiny.
“If you ask what is the ‘meditative stability free from ideation and merely endowed with scrutiny,’ it denotes the interval between the first and second meditative concentrations. This is called the meditative stability free from ideation and merely endowed with scrutiny.
“If you ask what is the ‘meditative stability free from both ideation and scrutiny,’ it denotes the meditative absorptions, starting from the first meditative concentration and continuing as far as the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception. This is called the meditative stability free from both ideation and scrutiny.
“If you ask what are the ‘eight sense fields of mastery,’ they are as follows:43 (1) The first sense field of mastery refers to the [miraculous] perceptual transformation that ensues when one who perceives inner forms regards lesser external forms,44 along with excellent colors and inferior colors, understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them. (2) The second sense field of mastery refers to the [miraculous] perceptual transformation that ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards greater external forms, along with excellent colors and inferior colors, understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them. (3) The third sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards blue external forms, blue colors, blue appearances, and blue reflections, such as[F.8.b] the blue [form], the blue color, the blue appearance, and the blue reflection of the flax blossom or excellent blue cloth from Vārāṇasī. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards blue external forms, blue colors, blue appearances, and blue reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them].45 (4) The fourth sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards yellow external forms, yellow colors, yellow appearances, and yellow reflections, such as the yellow [form], yellow color, yellow appearance, and yellow reflection of the cassia flower or excellent yellow cloth from Vārāṇasī. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards yellow external forms, yellow colors, yellow appearances, and yellow reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them]. (5) The fifth sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards red external forms, red colors, red appearances, and red reflections, such as the red [form], red color, red appearance, and red reflection of the pentapetes flower or excellent red cloth from Vārāṇasī. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards red external forms, red colors, red appearances, and red reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them]. (6) The sixth sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards white external forms, white colors, white appearances, and white reflections, such as the white [form], white color, white appearance, and white reflection of the [morning] star Venus [or excellent white cloth from Vārāṇasī]. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards white external forms, white colors, white appearances, and white reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them]. (7) The seventh sense field of mastery ensues when the perceptions of physical forms have been completely transcended in all respects, when the perceptions of obstructed, material phenomena have subsided,[F.9.a] and the mind does not engage with diverse perceptions, so that one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite space, thinking, ‘Space is infinite.’ (8) The eighth sense field of mastery ensues when the sense field of infinite space has been completely transcended in all respects, and when one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite consciousness, thinking, ‘Consciousness is infinite.’46 These are called the eight sense fields of mastery.
“If you ask what are the ‘ten sense fields of total consummation,’ they comprise (1) the total consummation of the earth element, (2) the total consummation of the water element, (3) the total consummation of the fire element, (4) the total consummation of the wind element, (5) the total consummation of the space element, (6) the total consummation of blueness, (7) the total consummation of yellowness, (8) the total consummation of redness, (9) the total consummation of whiteness, and (10) the total consummation of consciousness. These are called the ten sense fields of total consummation. [Through these successive meditative stabilities] (1) considering all elements to be present in the earth element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the earth element; (2) considering all elements to be present in the water element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the water element; (3) considering all elements to be present in the fire element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the fire element; (4) considering all elements to be present in the wind element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the wind element; (5) considering all elements to be present in the space element, all of them are then transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the space element; (6) considering all elements to be present in blueness, all of them are transformed into blueness; (7) considering all elements to be present in yellowness, all of them are transformed exclusively into yellowness; (8) considering all elements to be present in redness, all of them are transformed exclusively into redness; (9) considering all elements to be present in whiteness, all of them are transformed exclusively into whiteness; and (10) considering all elements to be present in consciousness,[F.9.b] all of them are transformed exclusively into consciousness. In this way, earth, water, fire, wind, space, blueness, yellowness, redness, whiteness, and consciousness are all transformed exclusively into a single element. These are called the sense fields of total consummation. It is because they intensify the production of their respective elements to the point of consummation that they are called sense fields of total consummation, and they are also known as sense fields of total consummation because each element is respectively transformed into all the others.47
“If you ask what are the ‘eighteen aspects of emptiness,’ they comprise (1) emptiness of internal phenomena, (2) emptiness of external phenomena, (3) emptiness of both external and internal phenomena, (4) emptiness of emptiness, (5) emptiness of great extent, (6) emptiness of ultimate reality, (7) emptiness of conditioned phenomena, (8) emptiness of unconditioned phenomena, (9) emptiness of the unlimited, (10) emptiness of that which has neither beginning nor end, (11) emptiness of non-dispersal, (12) emptiness of inherent existence, (13) emptiness of intrinsic defining characteristics, (14) emptiness of all things, (15) emptiness of non-apprehension, (16) emptiness of non-entities, (17) emptiness of essential nature, and (18) emptiness of the essential nature of non-entities.48
“If, among them, you ask what is the ‘emptiness of internal phenomena,’ the term ‘internal phenomena’ comprises the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mental faculty. Among them, the eyes are empty of the eyes because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. Similarly, the ears, the nose, the tongue, the body, and the mental faculty are, respectively, empty of [the ears, the nose, the tongue, the body, and] the mental faculty, because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. That is what is called the emptiness of internal phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of external phenomena,’ the term ‘external phenomena’ comprises sights, sounds, odors, tastes, tangibles, and mental phenomena. Among them, sights are empty of sights because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate.[F.10.a] If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. Similarly, sounds, odors, tangibles, and mental phenomena are, respectively, empty of [sounds, odors, tangibles, and] mental phenomena, because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, that is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of external phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of both external and internal phenomena,’ the term ‘external and internal phenomena’ comprises the six inner sense fields and the six outer sense fields. Among them, internal phenomena are empty of internal phenomena because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. External phenomena are also empty of external phenomena because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of external and internal phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of emptiness,’ that emptiness which is the emptiness of all phenomena is also empty of the emptiness of all phenomena because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of emptiness.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of great extent,’ the eastern direction is empty of the eastern direction because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is its very nature. The southern, western, northern, and four intermediate directions—all eight—are also similarly empty of themselves, and the zenith is empty of the zenith, while the nadir is empty of the nadir, because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of great extent.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of ultimate reality,’ the term ‘ultimate reality’ denotes nirvāṇa in the context of the ‘emptiness of ultimate reality.’ In this regard, nirvāṇa is empty of nirvāṇa because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of ultimate reality.[F.10.b]
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of conditioned phenomena,’ this refers to the world system of desire, the world system of form, and the world system of formlessness, among which the world system of desire is empty of the world system of desire, and similarly, the world system of form is empty of the world system of form, and the world system of formlessness is empty of the world system of formlessness because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of conditioned phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of unconditioned phenomena,’ the term ‘unconditioned phenomena’ denotes anything that does not arise, that does not abide, that does not disintegrate, and that does not change into something else. In this regard, unconditioned phenomena are empty of unconditioned phenomena because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of unconditioned phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of the unlimited,’ the arising of anything [which has no limits] is utterly non-apprehensible because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of the unlimited.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of that which has neither beginning nor end,’ the coming to pass of anything [in cyclic existence that has no beginning or end] is utterly non-apprehensible because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of that which has neither beginning nor end.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of non-dispersal,’ this denotes anything in which there is no dispersion. [Things are empty of non-dispersal] because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of non-dispersal.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of inherent existence,’ this denotes the true nature of all conditioned and unconditioned phenomena, which is not created by the śrāvakas, not created by the pratyekabuddhas, and not fashioned by the lord buddhas. [Inherent existence is empty of inherent existence] because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of inherent existence.[F.11.a]
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of all intrinsic defining characteristics,’ this denotes the intrinsic defining characteristic of physical forms, which is the capacity to assume physical forms; the intrinsic defining characteristic of feelings, which is emotional experience; the intrinsic defining characteristic of perceptions, which is comprehensibility; the intrinsic defining characteristic of formative predispositions which is conditioning; and the intrinsic defining characteristic of consciousness, which is cognizance. It applies to the defining characteristics of conditioned phenomena [such as these], and similarly extends as far as the defining characteristics of unconditioned phenomena. All these intrinsic defining characteristics are empty of their own intrinsic defining characteristics because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of intrinsic defining characteristics.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of all things,’ the term ‘all things’ denotes the five psycho-physical aggregates, the twelve sense fields, the eighteen sensory elements, corporeal phenomena, formless phenomena, conditioned phenomena, and unconditioned phenomena. All such things are empty of all things because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of all things.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of non-apprehension,’ it is that which does not apprehend any phenomena at all. [Non-apprehension is empty of non-apprehension] because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of non-apprehension.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of non-entities,’ it is the non-apprehension of any entity, in anything whatsoever. This is called the emptiness of non-entities.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of essential nature,’ it is the absence of any essential nature with respect to anything originating from combinations [of causes and conditions]. That is called the emptiness of essential nature.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of the essential nature of non-entities,’ it [too] is the absence of any essential nature in anything originating from combinations [of causes and conditions]. That is called the emptiness of the essential nature of non-entities.
“Moreover, Śāradvatīputra, entities are empty of entities.[F.11.b] Non-entities are empty of non-entities. Essential nature is empty of essential nature. Extraneous entities are empty of extraneous entities.49
“If you ask what are entities, the term ‘entities’ denotes the five psycho-physical aggregates, which comprise physical forms, feelings, perceptions, formative predispositions, and consciousness. In this regard, entities are empty of entities.
“If you ask in what way non-entities are empty of non-entities, the term ‘non-entities’ denotes unconditioned phenomena. In this regard unconditioned phenomena are empty of unconditioned phenomena. Similarly, non-entities are empty of non-entities.50
“If you ask in what way the essential nature is empty of the essential nature, the essential nature of all phenomena is not created by being known, it is not created by being seen, and it is not created by anything at all. In this way, the essential nature is said to be empty of the essential nature.51
“If you ask in what way extraneous entities are empty of extraneous entities, whether the tathāgatas have appeared or whether the tathāgatas have not appeared, the abiding nature of all things, the expanse of reality, the maturity with respect to all things, the real nature, the incontrovertible real nature, the inalienable real nature, and the finality of existence—all of these continue to abide. Anything that is empty of phenomena extraneous to these attributes may be called an extraneous entity that is empty of extraneous entities.
“Śāradvatīputra! These are all attributes with respect to which a great bodhisattva being should cultivate detachment. One who is without fixation will reach the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed and genuinely perfect enlightenment.”52
This completes the first chapter from “The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines,” entitled “The Context.”53[B2]
Then, once again, the Blessed One addressed the venerable Śāradvatīputra in the following words, “Śāradvatīputra, if you ask what are the ‘ten powers of the tathāgatas,’ they are as follows:[F.12.a] (1) definitive knowledge that things which are possible are indeed possible;54 (2) definitive knowledge that things which are impossible are indeed impossible; (3) definitive knowledge, through possibilities and causes, of the maturation of past, future, and present actions, and of those who undertake such actions; (4) definitive knowledge of multiple world systems and diverse dispositions; (5) definitive knowledge of the diversity of inclinations and the multiplicity of inclinations that other sentient beings and other individuals have; (6) definitive knowledge of whether the acumen of other sentient beings and other individuals is supreme or not; (7) definitive knowledge of the paths that lead anywhere; (8) definitive knowledge of all the afflicted and purified mental states and their emergence, with respect to the faculties, powers, branches of enlightenment, aspects of liberation, meditative concentrations, meditative stabilities, and formless absorptions; (9) definitive knowledge of the recollection of multiple past abodes, and of the transference of consciousness at the death and birth of all sentient beings; and (10) definitive knowledge that through one’s own extrasensory powers one has actualized, achieved, and maintained in this very lifetime the liberation of mind and the liberation of wisdom in the state that is free from contaminants because all contaminants have ceased, and so one can say, ‘My rebirths have come to an end. I have practiced chastity. I have fulfilled my duties. I will experience no other rebirths apart from this one.’55 Śāradvatīputra, these are called the ten powers of the tathāgatas.
“Śāradvatīputra, if you ask what are the ‘four assurances’ [proclaimed by the tathāgatas], they are as follows:
“ (1) When I claim to have attained genuinely perfect buddhahood, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else should say that I have not attained manifestly perfect buddhahood with respect to these particular phenomena here,[F.12.b] I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned [in the world] in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else!
“ (2) When I claim I am one whose contaminants have ceased, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else should say that these particular contaminants of mine have not ceased, I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned in the world in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else!
“ (3) When I claim to have explained those things which cause obstacles on the path, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else should insist in this respect that even though one might depend on those things, there will be no obstacles and that that would be impossible, I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned in the world in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else![F.13.a]
“ (4) When I claim to have explained the path through which suffering will genuinely cease, having ascertained that śrāvakas will find it conducive to the attainment of sublime emancipation, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else in the world should say in this respect that even if one practices this path, it will not be conducive to emancipation, that suffering will not cease, and that that is impossible, I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned in the world in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else! These are called the four assurances.56
“If you ask what are the ‘four kinds of exact knowledge,’ they comprise (1) exact knowledge of meanings, (2) exact knowledge of dharmas, (3) exact knowledge of their language and lexical explanations, and (4) exact knowledge of their eloquent expression.
“If you ask what is ‘great loving kindness,’ it is an action in which the tathāgatas engage on behalf of all sentient beings, treating enemies and friends identically. That is called great loving kindness. If you ask what is ‘great compassion,’ it is unstinting loving kindness toward all sentient beings, when there are actually no sentient beings. That is called great compassion.57
“If you ask what are the ‘eighteen distinct qualities of the buddhas,’ they are as follows: (1) The tathāgatas are without clumsiness; (2) they are not noisy; (3) they are without false memories; (4) they are without differentiating perceptions; (5) they are without uncomposed minds; (6) they are without the indifference that lacks discernment; (7) they do not degenerate in their resolution; (8) they do not degenerate in their perseverance; (9) they do not degenerate in their recollection; (10) they do not degenerate in their meditative stability;[F.13.b] (11) they do not degenerate in their wisdom; (12) they do not degenerate in their liberation, nor in their perception of liberating gnosis; (13) all the activities of their bodies are preceded by gnosis and followed by gnosis; (14) all the activities of their speech are preceded by pristine cognition and followed by gnosis; (15) all the activities of their minds are preceded by gnosis and followed by gnosis; (16) they engage in the perception of gnosis which is unobstructed and unimpeded with respect to the past; (17) they engage in the perception of gnosis which is unobstructed and unimpeded with respect to the future; and (18) they engage in the perception of gnosis which is unobstructed and unimpeded with respect to the present. These are called the eighteen distinct qualities of the buddhas.58
“If you ask what is the ‘understanding of all phenomena,’ it is the partial understanding of selflessness with respect to personal identity59 that śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas acquire with reference to the twelve sense fields. That is called the understanding of all phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘understanding of the aspects of the path,’ it is the emancipation from cyclic existence that bodhisattvas acquire through the path of the bodhisattvas, inasmuch as they are not attracted by the vehicles of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, even though they understand the paths of all three vehicles. That is called the understanding of the aspects of the path.
“If you ask what is the ‘understanding of omniscience,’ it is the knowledge that the tathāgatas have, without hesitation, with regard to all things, in all their aspects, throughout all the three times. That is called omniscience.60
“If you ask what are the ‘six transcendent perfections,’ they comprise (1) the transcendent perfection of generosity, (2) the transcendent perfection of ethical discipline, (3) the transcendent perfection of tolerance, (4) the transcendent perfection of perseverance, (5) the transcendent perfection of meditative concentration, and (6) the transcendent perfection of wisdom. These are called the six transcendent perfections.61
“If you ask what are the ‘six extrasensory powers,’ they comprise (1) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of [miraculous] activities, (2) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of divine clairvoyance, (3) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of divine clairaudience,[F.14.a] (4) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of other minds, (5) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of recollection of past lives, and (6) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of the cessation of contaminants. These are called the six extrasensory powers.62
“If you ask what are the ‘five eyes,’ they comprise (1) the eye of flesh, (2) the eye of divine clairvoyance, (3) the eye of wisdom, (4) the eye of the sacred doctrine, and (5) the eye of the Buddha. These are called the five eyes.63
While dwelling at Vulture Peak near Rājagṛha, the Buddha sets in motion the sūtras that are the most extensive of all—the sūtras on the Prajñāpāramitā, or “Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom.” Committed to writing around the start of the first millennium, these sūtras were expanded and contracted in the centuries that followed, eventually amounting to twenty-three volumes in the Tibetan Kangyur. Among them, The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines is a compact and coherent restatement of the longer versions, uniquely extant in Tibetan translation, without specific commentaries, and rarely studied. While the structure generally follows that of the longer versions, chapters 1–2 conveniently summarize all three hundred and sixty-seven categories of phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes which the sūtra examines in the light of wisdom or discriminative awareness. Chapter 31 and the final chapter 33 conclude with an appraisal of irreversible bodhisattvas, the pitfalls of rejecting this teaching, and the blessings that accrue from committing it to writing.
Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group under the direction of Jigme Khyentse Rinpoche and Pema Wangyal Rinpoche. The text was translated, introduced, and annotated by Dr. Gyurme Dorje, and edited by Charles Hastings and John Canti with contributions from Greg Seton.
This translation has been completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Work on this text was made possible thanks to generous donations made by Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse Rinpoche; respectfully and humbly offered by Judy Cole, William Tai, Jie Chi Tai and families; by Shi Jing and family; by Wang Kang Wei and Zhao Yun Qi and family; and by Matthew, Vivian, Ye Kong and family. They are all most gratefully acknowledged.
The Tibetan Buddhist tradition classifies the discourses delivered by Buddha Śākyamuni in terms of the three turnings of the doctrinal wheel, promulgated at different places and times in the course of his life. Among them, the sūtras of the first turning expound the four noble truths, those of the second turning explain emptiness and the essenceless nature of all phenomena, while those of the third turning elaborate further distinctions between the three essenceless natures.1 The sūtras of the transcendent perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā),2 to which the text translated here belongs, are firmly placed by their own assertion3 within the second turning, promulgated at Vulture Peak near Rājagṛha.
It is in these sūtras that the role of the compassionate bodhisattva with a mind set upon enlightenment achieves preeminence over the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas of lesser attainment.4 The central message subtly integrates relative truth and ultimate truth, reiterating that great bodhisattva beings should strive to attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in order to eliminate the sufferings of all sentient beings rather than merely terminate cyclic existence for their own sake, even though, from an ultimate perspective, there are no phenomena, no sentient beings, and no attainment of manifestly perfect buddhahood.
The relentless deconstruction of all conceptual elaborations with respect to phenomena, meditative experiences, and even the causal and fruitional attributes characteristic of the bodhisattva path, which is explicitly emphasized throughout these sūtras, may have been controversial,5 but it has given rise to both Madhyamaka dialectics and to the non-analytical meditative pursuits of the Chan (Zen) tradition. In Tibet, on the other hand, the sūtras are generally approached through study of The Ornament of Clear Realization and its extensive commentaries, which constitute the Parchin (phar phyin) literature—one of the principal subjects of the monastic college curriculum. These treatises elaborate on the eightfold structural progression of the bodhisattvas’ goals, paths, and fruit which are implied, though understated, in all but the recast manuscript of the Sūtra in Twenty-five Thousand Lines.
Traditional Tibetan accounts hold that, following their promulgation by Śākyamuni, the sūtras were concealed in non-human abodes—the longest Sūtra in One Billion Lines among the gandharvas, the Sūtra in Ten Million Lines among the devas, and the Sūtra in One Hundred Thousand Lines among the nāgas—the last of these being retrieved and revealed by Nāgārjuna from the ocean depths and initially propagated in South India.
The extant texts forming this cycle of sūtras are replete with abbreviations, modulations, and other mnemonic features, indicative of an early oral transmission—even today they are read aloud as an act of merit in monastic halls and public gatherings. At the same time, the medium length and longer sūtras explicitly extoll the merits of committing the sūtras to writing, in the form of a book, as an offering for the benefit of posterity.6
The earliest written version appears to have taken shape around the start of the first millennium, in the age when birch-bark and palm-leaf manuscripts first began to appear in the Indian subcontinent. Contemporary research (Falk 2011, Falk and Karashima 2012) has brought to our attention extant segments and fragments of a birch-bark scroll containing a portion of a generic manuscript of the Sūtra of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in the Gāndhārī language, written in Kharoṣṭhī script, which was, by all accounts, retrieved from a stone case in the Bajaur region of the Afghan-Pakistan border. The manuscript has been carbon dated within the range of 25–74
Philological evidence suggests that this manuscript was the forerunner of a later Gāndhārī manuscript translated by Lokakṣema into Chinese, while certain peculiarities of transcription and the presence of conventional mnemonic abbreviations also presuppose an earlier manuscript, which may no longer be extant.7 These Kharoṣṭhī scrolls are among the oldest surviving exemplars of all Indic texts, with the exception of the Aśokan rock inscriptions and pillar edicts, and it has been speculated that their source manuscript may even predate the original redaction of the Pāli Canon.8
Conze (1960: 1–2) outlines the case for the sūtras’ South Indian origin among the Pūrvaśaila and Aparaśaila schools of the Mahāsaṅghika order, where the monasteries of Amarāvati and Dhānyakataka each seems to have preserved a version in Prakrit. Other evidence, not least the survival of the Kharoṣṭhī manuscript segments from Bajaur, suggests, on the contrary, that the sūtras were first committed to writing in the northwest. The epigraphic research of Richard Salomon at the University of Washington tends toward the latter view. The Arapacana alphabet found in some of the longer sūtras as a dhāraṇī follows the order of letters and peculiarities of the Kharoṣṭhī script.9 Furthermore, the earliest Chinese translation of the Eight Thousand Lines (Taisho 224), dated 179–180
The fact that the sūtras were copied, expanded and translated rapidly into other languages suggests that the admonishment to commit them to writing as an act of merit was taken seriously by early proponents of the Great Vehicle. Scholarly opinion differs as to which of the sūtras appeared first. Conze (1960) considers that the first two chapters of the Verse Summation and the Eight Thousand Lines are the oldest, while Japanese scholars tend to give precedence to the Adamantine Cutter (in Three Hundred Lines). The latter text was highly influential in the development of Huineng’s Platform Sūtra (Liùzǔ Tánjīng), and a copy of it is also the world’s oldest extant printed book, dated 868, retrieved by Sir Aurel Stein from Dunhuang and preserved in The British Museum. Schopen (2005: 31–32, 55) puts forward the idea that there was a shift from the oral transmission exemplified in the Adamantine Cutter to the written transmission of the Eight Thousand Lines.
The historical evolution of the sūtras within the Indian subcontinent is examined preeminently in Conze (1960: 1–18), who outlines the following four historical phases: (1) the appearance of the medium length Sūtra in Eight Thousand Lines, dated 100
The titles of the various sūtras within the genre are differentiated on the basis of the number of thirty-two syllable “lines” (śloka) contained in their original Sanskrit manuscripts. There is also internal numbering, which assists navigation. This takes two forms: the tally of fascicles (kalāpa, bam po) into which the original bark or palm leaf manuscripts were bundled is indicated at the start of each tome, and the tally of chapters (parivarta, le’u) which distinguish the content is indicated at the conclusion of each chapter. The present translation emphasizes the divisions of the chapter titles, while encoding the residual tally of fascicles. For example the final fascicle heading of the sūtra, which would read “Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines. The thirty-fourth fascicle is as follows,” appears encoded as [B34].
In Tibetan translation, the sūtras of the transcendent perfection of wisdom comprise approximately one fifth of the entire Kangyur, taking up twenty-one volumes of the Lhasa and Urga Kangyurs, twenty-two of the Cone Kangyur, twenty-three of the Degé and Narthang Kangyurs, and up to twenty-seven of some of the manuscript Kangyurs. In most Kangyurs, this section, known as Prajñāpāramitā (shes phyin), precedes all the other sūtra divisions—the Avataṃsaka (phal chen), Ratnakūṭa (dkon brtsegs) and General Sūtra (mdo sde) sections—reflecting the high prestige of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom within Mahāyāna Buddhism as a whole. In most Kangyurs, including the Degé, the section includes twenty-three distinct texts, foremost among them being the “six mothers” (yum drug) and the “eleven children” (bu bcu gcig). In some Kangyurs, including those of the Peking family, the section contains only seventeen (the “mothers” and “children”), and the seven other texts usually classed in this genre are found in other divisions.
The six mothers are the “longer” and “medium” length sūtras, which are said to be distinguished by their structural presentation of all eight aspects of the bodhisattvas’ path, as elucidated in The Ornament of Clear Realization. The shorter texts, being terser, do not fully elaborate this structure.11 The six mothers are outlined as follows:
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 8)12 comprises twelve volumes, twenty-five fascicles, and seventy-two chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 9)13 comprises three volumes, seventy-eight fascicles, and seventy-six chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 10)14 comprises two and a half volumes, sixty fascicles, and eighty-seven chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Daśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 11) comprises one and a half volumes, thirty-four fascicles, and thirty-three chapters.
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines (Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 12) comprises one volume, twenty-four fascicles, and thirty-two chapters.
The Verse Summation of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom (Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā, Toh 13) comprises nineteen folios.
In addition to these Tibetan translations, there are extant Sanskrit manuscripts from Gilgit and Nepal, complete in some cases, partial in others, and Chinese translations representing all of the longer and medium length versions of the sūtra, with the exception of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines. A bibliographic appraisal of all texts within the cycle can be found in Conze (1960: 31–91), and listings of the corresponding translations into Western languages in Pfandt (1983).
The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines, which is translated here, uniquely has no extant Sanskrit manuscripts or Chinese translations—the Tibetan version alone is extant—nor are there any extant commentaries of Indo-Tibetan or Sino-Japanese origin. For these reasons, Conze (1960: 46) has even expressed doubt as to its authenticity, suggesting that the sūtra may have been composed in Tibet. This, however, is highly unlikely—in style and content the sūtra is compatible with the three longer versions, and quite dissimilar to the indigenous Tibetan compositions of the ninth century, when it was listed in the Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) catalogue.15 Situ Paṇchen’s catalogue to the Degé Kangyur includes the colophon of this sūtra, indicating that it was translated into Tibetan by Jinamitra, Prajñāvarman, and the translator Yeshé Dé.16
Hikata (1958: ix–lxxxiii) claims that the text is a somewhat erratic version of the three longer sūtras, and yet this is not borne out by a detailed analysis of the sūtra itself, which, as we shall see, may justifiably be regarded as a compact and coherent restatement of the longer versions, having much more in common with them than with The Eight Thousand Lines.
The pioneering Norwegian Indologist Sten Konow is the only academic to have given serious consideration to our text in his 1941 monograph, which includes a Sanskrit reconstruction and translation of the first two chapters. These particular chapters are of great interest because they conveniently draw together the enumerations of the three hundred and sixty-seven aspects of phenomena, meditative experiences, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments that form the critique of the sūtras. Konow (1941: 70) compares the list of these phenomena and attributes to those found in other sūtras within the cycle and in other Mahāyāna texts. In particular, with regard to the unusual listing of only seventy-eight minor marks, rather than eighty, he speculates that The Ten Thousand Lines “may represent an earlier attempt,” predating the enumerations found in the Mahāvastu, Lalitavistara, and Mahāvyutpatti, which all appear to have a common source.
In the course of translating the present text, we have sought to identify parallel passages in the Dutt (1934) and Kimura (1971–2009) editions of the recast Sanskrit manuscript (which also facilitated the preparation of the trilingual glossary). Other secondary sources have also proved to be essential research tools, including Conze’s Materials for a Dictionary of the Prajñāpāramitā Literature (1973), along with his composite translation from the longer sūtras (1975), and the translations of the renowned Indian treatises of Haribhadra and Vimuktisena contained in Sparham (2006–2012). For appraisals of the transcendent perfection literature in general, readers may also wish to consult Dayal (1932), Conze (1960), Williams (1989), Jamieson (2000), and Brunnholzl (2010), the last of whom, in his introduction, offers important insights from the Tibetan commentarial tradition.
While the deconstruction of all aspects of conceptual elaboration is explicitly stated throughout the sūtra, the structural progression of the bodhisattva path is largely understood by implication and it is unraveled chiefly with reference to the commentary found in Maitreya’s Ornament of Clear Realization. The recast Sanskrit manuscript of later provenance, edited in Dutt (1934) and Kimura (1971–2009) presents the entire Twenty-five Thousand Lines in that context, and it is on that basis that we can also, by analogy, understand the implied meaning of The Ten Thousand Lines.
The eight aspects of the bodhisattvas’ progression include: three which present the theoretical understandings of the goals to be realized, four which present the practical application of training through which they will be realized, and one which presents the fruit arising from conclusive realization. Together these form the graduated approach of the bodhisattva path that is revered and maintained in all Tibetan traditions, and most exemplary in the lives and teachings of the great Kadampa masters, such as Ngok Loden Sherab. The eight aspects with their seventy topics may be outlined as follows:
Its ten topics include (i) setting of the mind on enlightenment, (ii) the instructions concerning its application within the Great Vehicle, (iii) the four aspects of ascertainment on the path of preparation, comprising warmth, peak, acceptance, and supremacy, (iv) the naturally abiding buddha nature which is the basis for attaining the Great Vehicle, (v) the referents through which the Great Vehicle is attained, (vi) the goals attained through the Great Vehicle, (vii) the armor-like attainment, (viii) attainment through engagement, (ix) attainment through the provisions of merit and gnosis, and (x) definitive attainment.
Its eleven topics include (i) essential aspects for understanding the path, (ii) the understanding of the path which is that of the śrāvakas, (iii) the understanding of the path which is that of the pratyekabuddhas, (iv) the beneficial path of insight, which accords with the Great Vehicle, (v) the functions of the path of cultivation, (vi) the aspirational path of cultivation, (vii) the path of cultivation resulting in eulogy, exhortation, and praise, (viii) the path of cultivation resulting in dedication, (ix) the path of cultivation resulting in sympathetic rejoicing, (x) the path of cultivation resulting in attainment, and (ix) the path of meditation resulting in purity.
Its nine topics include (i) the basic understanding that discernment leads to non-abiding in phenomenal existence, (ii) the basic understanding that compassion leads to non-abiding in quiescence, (iii) the basic understanding that lack of skillful means leads to distance from the transcendent perfection of wisdom, (iv) the basic understanding that skillful means leads to its proximity, (v) the basic understanding of the discordant factors associated with the fixation of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, (vi) the remedial factors countering those fixations, (vii) training in the aforementioned basic understandings, (viii) training in the sameness of those basic understandings, and (ix) the path of insight which integrates these basic understandings.
Its eleven topics include (i) the aspects of the aforementioned three theoretical understandings; (ii) training in those aspects; (iii) the qualities acquired through those trainings, (iv) the defects to be eliminated during training, (v) the defining characteristics of training, (vii) the path of provisions in accord with liberation, (vii) the path of preparation in accord with the aforementioned four degrees of penetration, (viii) the signs of the irreversible bodhisattva trainees, (ix) training in the sameness of phenomenal existence and quiescence, (x) the training associated with the pure realms, and (xi) training in skillful means for the sake of others.
Its eight topics include (i) the culminating training of warmth on the path of preparation, (ii) the culminating training in the peak on the path of preparation, (iii) the culminating training in acceptance on the path of preparation, (iv) the culminating training in supremacy on the path of preparation, (v) the culminating training on the path of insight, (vi) the culminating training on the path of cultivation, (vii) the culminating uninterrupted training on the path of cultivation, comprising the adamantine meditative stability, and (viii) the mistaken notions that are to be eliminated.
Its thirteen topics include (i–vi) the serial trainings in the six transcendent perfections of generosity, ethical discipline, tolerance, perseverance, meditative concentration and wisdom; (vii–xii) the serial training in the six recollections of the spiritual teacher, the buddha, the sacred doctrine, the monastic community, ethical discipline, and generosity; and (xiii) the serial training in the realization that phenomena are without essential nature.
Its four topics include (i) instantaneous training in terms of maturation, (ii) instantaneous training in terms of non-maturation, (iii) instantaneous training in terms of the lack of defining characteristics, and (iv) instantaneous training in terms of non-duality.
Its four topics include (i) the buddha body of essentiality, (ii) the buddha body of gnosis and reality, (ii) the buddha body of perfect resource, and (iv) the buddha body of emanation.
In terms of The Ten Thousand Lines, we can see that the parallel passages of the Sanskrit edition of the recast manuscript, following Dutt and Kimura, suggest that chapters 1–14 pertain to the understanding of all phenomena, chapters 15–18a pertain to the understanding of the aspects of the path, and chapters 18b–19 pertain to the understanding of omniscience. Chapters 20–25a pertain to training in the clear realization of all phenomena, chapters 25b–28a pertain to the training in culminating clear realization and serial clear realization, and chapters 28b–30 pertain to the training in instantaneous clear realization. Chapter 31 explores the indications of irreversible bodhisattvas, chapter 32 pertains to the fruitional attainment of the buddha attributes, and chapter 33 concludes the sūtra with the admonishments that it should be respected, maintained, and entrusted for the sake of posterity.
In the following summary, the eight aspects appear as subtitles with the same Roman numerals as in the list above. The thirty-three chapters are unevenly distributed among them.
The first fourteen chapters of the text concern the theoretical understanding of all phenomena, which is the first goal to be realized. Śāradvatīputra acts as Lord Buddha’s interlocutor in the first nine chapters, with Subhūti making his initial appearance in chapter 10.
In response to a question about what is the transcendent perfection of wisdom which bodhisattvas are to perfect, Lord Buddha replies that it is the absence of fixation with respect to all phenomena, all meditative experiences, all causal attributes acquired by bodhisattvas, all fruitional attributes manifested by buddhas, and all attainments up to and including omniscience. along with unconditioned phenomena, such as the abiding nature of all things and the finality of existence, these are all attributes with respect to which a great bodhisattva being should cultivate detachment. Bodhisattvas do perceive such phenomena distinctly, but only on the relative level; in an ultimate sense they consider them to be illusory, in the manner of a dream and so forth.
Fixation may ensue when those phenomena and attributes are considered as permanent or impermanent, as conducive to happiness or suffering, with self or without self, empty or not empty, with signs or signless, having or lacking aspirations, calm or not calm, void or not void, afflicted or purified, arising or not arising, ceasing or not ceasing, and as entities or non-entities. Deluded minds would view these phenomena and attributes as absolutely existent whereas bodhisattvas should train so as to understand that they are all non-apprehensible—mere designations and conceptualizations.
Bodhisattvas do not consider whether or not they are engaged in union with all those phenomena and attributes. Owing to the emptiness of intrinsic defining characteristics, they neither associate anything with nor disassociate anything from anything else. They do not consider whether certain things are connected with other things because nothing is connected with any other thing. Indeed, the nature of phenomena is emptiness—non-arising, non-ceasing, neither afflicted nor purified.
Bodhisattvas will approach omniscience, attaining complete purity of body, speech, and mind, as well as freedom from afflicted mental states, and then they will bring sentient beings to maturation until they attain manifestly perfect buddhahood. Bodhisattvas who practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom in this manner will perfect all the other transcendent perfections, whereby they will attain genuinely perfect enlightenment. Since phenomena are invariably non-apprehensible and notions about them are also non-apprehensible, how could the designations of phenomena constitute a bodhisattva?
The term “great bodhisattva being” is meaningless, non-existent like a dream or like the tracks of a bird in the sky. Just as the notions of a buddha’s degenerate morality, mental distraction, stupidity, non-liberation, and misperception are all without foundation, the notion of a great bodhisattva being abiding in the transcendent perfection of wisdom is also non-existent, because all phenomena and attributes are without foundation, neither conjoined nor disjoined, and they are immaterial, unrevealed, and unobstructed. Their only defining characteristic is that they lack defining characteristics. Yet, it is only when bodhisattvas have trained in the transcendent perfection of wisdom without apprehending anything that they will attain omniscience.
Unskilled bodhisattvas without an authentic teacher will be afraid when they hear this, but, with skill in means, they will discern that all things are impermanent and so on, and will not apprehend them. Attentive without apprehending anything, without dogmatic assumptions, they will discern that all phenomena and attributes are even empty of their own emptiness. So it is that those seeking to perfect the transcendent perfections, to comprehend all phenomena, and to abandon afflicted mental states, as well as all fetters, latent impulses, and obsessions should train in this transcendent perfection of wisdom.
Authentic spiritual mentors are those who teach, without apprehending anything, that all phenomena are impermanent, and so forth, dedicating their roots of virtue exclusively to omniscience. Encouraging bodhisattvas to cultivate the causal and fruitional attributes, they teach, without apprehending anything, that all things are void.
However, if bodhisattvas cultivate the transcendent perfections and apprehend them, attentive to the causal and fruitional attributes, they will make assumptions and fall into the hands of others who would dissuade them from their course on the grounds that the transcendent perfections are the non-canonical fabrications of poets and of malign forces. Māra could even appear in the guise of a buddha to discourage them from practicing the transcendent perfections, or persuade them that they cannot become irreversible bodhisattvas, or even that the attainment of manifestly perfect buddhahood is itself impossible.
On the other hand, when bodhisattvas teach, without apprehending anything, in order that sentient beings might abandon their nihilist and eternalist views, or their notions concerning phenomena or causal and fruitional attributes—all this indicates that they will have been accepted by an authentic teacher.
The immaturity of a bodhisattva manifests when those who have previously regressed fail to enter into the maturity of the bodhisattvas. Unskilled in the transcendent perfections, they instead actualize lesser attainments, craving for the teachings because they become fixated on the notions that all phenomena, and causal and fruitional attributes, are impermanent, and so forth.
On the other hand, skillful bodhisattvas do not make assumptions about anything, even the enlightened mind, because the intrinsic nature of this mind is luminosity, without afflicted mental states, obsessions, fetters, or latent impulses. Just as this natural luminosity of the mind is unchanging and without conceptual notions, so are all phenomena, or causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments unchanging and without conceptual notions. The transcendent perfections are skillfully cultivated by discerning, without apprehending anything, that thoughts of miserliness, degenerate morality, agitation, indolence, distraction, and stupidity are all non-entities. All this characterizes the maturity of great bodhisattva beings who proceed on the path to enlightenment. They cannot be overcome by anyone and will never regress or become impoverished. They will perceive numerous buddhas and listen to their sacred teachings, but without conceptual notions.
Whenever bodhisattvas practice any of the six transcendent perfections and don the great armor for the sake of all sentient beings, they also engage with all the other five transcendent perfections. Their generosity is characterized by the giver, gift, and recipient being non-apprehensible; their ethical discipline by a lack of fascination with lower attainments; their tolerance by endurance and confidence; their perseverance by indefatigability, relentlessness, and tenacity; their meditative concentration by disinterest in lesser goals; and their wisdom by understanding the illusory nature of all phenomena. When bodhisattvas practice these six transcendent perfections, they achieve and maintain the various meditative states, replete with the appropriate signs of successful practice, and then, attaining omniscience, they arise from these meditative states and communicate them successfully to others.
When they understand the aspects of emptiness and practice the transcendent perfections without apprehending anything, they do not apprehend the transcendent perfections, or their cultivators. Instead they cultivate all the causal and fruitional attributes in order to put an end to cultivation, and they do so without apprehending anything. Because beings are non-apprehensible, the term “bodhisattva” is understood to be a mere conventional expression, as are all phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments. Despite their achievements, they are without any notion whatsoever.
Bodhisattvas should don the armor of the transcendent perfections, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments and send forth emanations and resources to benefit sentient beings. In the manner of an illusionist, they offer resources to the needy, they appear to establish others in virtuous actions, they exhibit tolerance when attacked by imaginary assailants, they encourage others to pursue virtuous paths with perseverance, they establish others in meditative concentration, and they do not apprehend anything arising, ceasing, afflicted, or purified. The reality of illusion is the reality of all things. Maintaining the transcendent perfections, they establish sentient beings therein until they too have attained manifestly perfect buddhahood. And yet, bodhisattvas should know that they are seeking a non-existent armor because all phenomena, attributes, bodhisattvas and even the great armor itself are all inherently empty. Omniscience is uncreated and unconditioned, as are the beings for whom bodhisattvas don the great armor. Resembling dreams, all things are unfettered and unliberated.
Even though bodhisattvas may refine the five eyes until the fruits of arhatship, individual enlightenment, or manifestly perfect buddhahood are attained, they should not dwell upon notions which are all non-apprehensible. Unskilled bodhisattvas who resort to notions of “I” and “mine” will not attain omniscience. The transcendent perfection of wisdom cannot be appropriated, owing to the emptiness of inherent existence. Therefore, bodhisattvas should determine that all things are empty of inherent existence, without mental wandering.
This spacious and indefinable method of the bodhisattvas, known as the maṇḍala of the meditative stability of non-appropriation, is unknown to others. Owing to the non-appropriation of all things, and the non-existence of transmigration at the time of death, bodhisattvas do not make assumptions. Instead, they determine that, owing to emptiness, the absence of objective referents denotes the transcendent perfection of wisdom. If bodhisattvas are not disheartened when they make this determination, they will never be separated from the transcendent perfection of wisdom. Undertaking this training, they will attain omniscience.
Unskilled bodhisattvas who engage with phenomena, attributes, notions of permanence, and so forth, will merely engage with mental images and dualistic concepts, and will not be released from cyclic existence. On the other hand, when bodhisattvas skillfully practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom, owing to emptiness they do not engage with anything at all. Since everything has the essential nature of non-entity, they have not appropriated anything.
There are one hundred and eleven non-acquisitive meditative stabilities of the bodhisattvas through which they will swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood. Without considering or making dualistic assumptions about any of those meditative stabilities, bodhisattvas are naturally absorbed in meditation, and inseparable from them, without conceptual imaginations. So it is that they train in the transcendent perfections, causal and fruitional attributes, without apprehending anything.
Owing to the utter purity of all things, they do not apprehend anything at all; since nothing arises or ceases, nothing is afflicted or purified. Through adherence to the two extremes of eternalism and nihilism, ordinary people imagine phenomena and attributes that are non-existent, and become fixated on them. They will not attain emancipation from cyclic existence, failing to understand that all things are emptiness, and lacking stability in the transcendent perfections.
The Great Vehicle will not come to rest anywhere because resting is non-apprehensible. No one will attain emancipation by means of this vehicle because all attributes and attainments associated with this vehicle are non-existent and non-apprehensible, owing to their utter purity. When bodhisattvas practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom in that manner, owing to the fact that all things are non-apprehensible, they will attain emancipation by means of the Great Vehicle in the state of omniscience. This Great Vehicle overpowers and attains emancipation from cyclic existence which is merely imagined, fabricated, and verbally constructed. The Great Vehicle comprises all meditative experiences and causal and fruitional attributes, and it is analogous to space, in that therein motion, rest, direction, shape, color, time, flux, arising, cessation, virtue, non-virtue, sense objects, and so forth, are not discernible. The Great Vehicle accommodates innumerable sentient beings, in the manner of space.
This Great Vehicle does not apprehend afflicted mental states or their absence, nor does it apprehend notions of permanence and impermanence, self and non-self, and so forth. The term “bodhisattva” designates one who is intent on enlightenment, on the basis of which the indications and signs of the causal and fruitional attributes are known without fixation, but the transcendent perfection of wisdom is far removed from all phenomena, afflicted mental states and opinions, and from the causal and fruitional attributes and attainments.
Bodhisattvas do not investigate the notions that these are imbued with happiness and suffering because all things are inherently empty—non-arising, non-ceasing, without duality, neither conjoined nor disjoined—and they share a single defining characteristic in that they are all immaterial, unrevealed, unimpeded, and without defining characteristics.
Once bodhisattvas have developed, without apprehending anything, the notion of sentient beings as their father, mother, or child, with their minds set on genuinely perfect enlightenment, they see that all notions of self and the like are entirely non-existent and non-apprehensible. Relatively speaking, there are attainments and clear realizations, but, ultimately, there are no attainment, no clear realization, no realized beings and no ordinary beings. It is because all phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes and attainments, are empty of inherent existence that bodhisattvas will refine them.
The theoretical understanding of the aspects of the bodhisattva path is the focus of the next section of the sūtra, commencing with chapter 15 and continuing through the first part of chapter 18. Here, Śakra and various divine princes in his entourage participate in the dialogue—both telepathically and verbally—alongside Lord Buddha, Subhūti and Śāradvatiputra.
Bodhisattvas who have cultivated omniscience should be attentive, without apprehending anything, to the notions that all things are impermanent, imbued with suffering, calm, void, and so forth. They should be attentive, without apprehending anything, to the origination of suffering and to the cessation of suffering. They should cultivate the causal and fruitional attributes and practice the transcendent perfections, without apprehending anything. They discern that the concepts of “I” and ”mine” and even thoughts of dedication are utterly non-existent and non-apprehensible in the enlightened mind. This is the transcendent perfection of wisdom, which is non-referential in all respects. Bodhisattvas should not dwell on anything or on any notion that they should perfect the transcendent perfections and establish countless beings in genuinely perfect enlightenment.
Just as when, in a dream, a buddha is seen teaching, nothing at all is said or heard by anyone, so all things are like dreams—the enlightenment of the buddhas is inexpressible. No one who seeks to actualize the fruits of attainment can do so without accepting that phenomena are non-arising.
The sacred doctrine, those who teach it, and sentient beings who receive it all resemble a magical display, a dream, and so on. This transcendent perfection of wisdom, which is so profound, so hard to discern, and so hard to realize will be received by irreversible bodhisattvas who do not construe the notion that things are empty, signless, aspirationless, non-arising, unceasing, void, and calm. There is no one to receive this transcendent perfection of wisdom because nothing at all is expressed and there are no beings who will receive it. The three vehicles, the nature of all phenomena, and attributes and attainments have been taught, but exclusively without apprehending anything, owing to the aspects of emptiness.
When bodhisattvas have heard this transcendent perfection of wisdom, there are malign forces which will seek to harm them, but to no avail, because all things are without inherent existence. Since they cultivate thoughts of loving kindness, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity toward all sentient beings, without apprehending anything, they will not die in unfavorable circumstances because they furnish all sentient beings with genuine happiness and gain their respect. In dependence on such bodhisattvas the ten virtuous actions, meditative experiences, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments become manifest.
The transcendent perfection of wisdom sheds light and dispels the blindness of afflicted mental states and all false views owing to its utter purity. It secures happiness, demonstrating the path to those who go astray. It is omniscience, the mother of bodhisattvas, because it generates all buddha attributes. Just as the blind cannot get around without a guide, the five other transcendent perfections have no scope to attain omniscience unguided by the transcendent perfection of wisdom. Yet, this transcendent perfection of wisdom is actualized owing to the non-actualization of all things because they are non-arising, non-apprehensible, and do not disintegrate. Nothing at all will be attained because the transcendent perfection of wisdom does not establish anything at all in an apprehending manner, not even omniscience. Despite that, bodhisattvas do not undervalue the transcendent perfection of wisdom. Those who retain it will never be separated from omniscience. Those who commit it to writing in the form of a book and make offerings to it will accrue advantages in this life and the next. They will always be protected, everyone will rejoice in them, and they will be capable of warding off all refutations.
Since bodhisattvas have come into this world, having made offerings to innumerable buddhas, when they see or hear the transcendent perfection of wisdom they will realize it in a signless, non-dual, and non-focusing manner. All phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments are neither fettered nor liberated, since their natural expression remains unchanged. All things are pure owing to the indivisible purity of sentient beings and afflicted mental states. This purity is not subject to affliction due to the natural luminosity of all phenomena, attributes, and attainments. It is neither attained nor manifestly realized, and it has not been actualized. Nor is this purity cognizant of anything, due to the emptiness of inherent existence. The transcendent perfection of wisdom neither helps nor hinders omniscience and it does not appropriate anything at all.17
The theoretical understanding of omniscience is the focus of the next section of the sūtra, commencing with the second part of chapter 18 and continuing through chapter 19.
Skillful bodhisattvas, on account of emptiness, are without dualistic perceptions and conceptual notions. If they were to cognize their own minds, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments, and dedicate these to genuinely perfect enlightenment in a self-conscious manner, they would be incapable of practicing the transcendent perfection of wisdom without attachment. Rather, they delight others, discerning the sameness of all things, inattentive to conceptual notions, and forsaking all limits of attachment. Since the transcendent perfection of wisdom is unfabricated and unconditioned, there is no one at all who can attain manifestly perfect buddhahood. When bodhisattvas know this, they will abandon all the limits of attachment.
The transcendent perfection of wisdom is an agent that has no actions because it is non-apprehensible. Bodhisattvas who are not disheartened and who do not turn away from genuinely perfect enlightenment will achieve that which is difficult because this cultivation of the transcendent perfections is like cultivating space. In space, no phenomena, attributes, or attainments are discerned. Those bodhisattvas who would don protective armor, seeking to liberate beings from cyclic existence, are actually seeking to buttress the sky and they acquire great perseverance. Whenever they practice without making assumptions, they discern that phenomena are like a dream, and so on.
This transcendent perfection of wisdom is absolutely pure. Through it bodhisattvas attain manifestly perfect buddhahood, and turn the wheel of the sacred doctrine, even though nothing at all is set in motion or reversed because, in emptiness, there is nothing apprehensible, nothing that arises or ceases, nothing that is afflicted or purified, and nothing that is to be retained or forsaken. All things are invariably unactualized because emptiness, signlessness, and aspirationlessness do not set in motion or reverse anything at all.
After the three theoretical sections of the sūtra, the next four concern their practical implementation through training. Among them, the fourth section, entitled “Clear Realization of all Phenomena,” commences from chapter 20 and continues through the first part of chapter 25. It integrates all the aforementioned categories of phenomena, meditative experiences, and the causal and fruitional attributes from the perspective of training.
The transcendent perfection of wisdom is infinite, void, beyond limitations, non-existent, inexpressible, dreamlike, empty, without defining characteristics, and so forth—all owing to its non-apprehension. For the sake of the world, the buddhas have expressed it in conventional terms, but that is not the case in ultimate reality. For instance, the defining characteristics of the five aggregates are respectively their materiality, emotional experience, comprehensibility, conditioning, and particularizing intrinsic awareness. The defining characteristic of the six transcendent perfections are respectively renunciation, non-involvement, imperturbability, uncrushability, undistractedness, and non-fixation. The defining characteristic of the meditative experiences is non-disturbance, and so on. However, the tathāgatas attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in the absence of all these defining characteristics.
This transcendent perfection of wisdom is established by means of great deeds, unappraisable deeds, innumerable deeds, and deeds that are equal to the unequaled. Just as a king may delegate all his royal duties to senior ministers, relinquishing responsibility so that he has few concerns, in the same way all things are subsumed within the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and implemented by it. This is profound, hard to discern, and hard to realize! Bodhisattvas who have come to accept that phenomena are non-arising have this superior understanding. Anyone who has committed this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom to writing will swiftly attain genuinely perfect buddhahood.
Just as shipwrecked people without a life raft will die without reaching the ocean shore and those who have one will safely reach dry land, bodhisattvas who do not commit it to writing will regress, without reaching the maturity of the bodhisattvas. However, if they relentlessly persevere until genuinely perfect enlightenment is attained, and commit this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom to writing and train earnestly in it, they will not regress. Having brought sentient beings to maturity, they will attain manifestly perfect buddhahood.
Briefly stated, unskilled bodhisattvas think in a dualistic manner, making assumptions about the six transcendent perfections although there are no such concepts. Skilled bodhisattvas who practice the six transcendent perfections without resorting to notions of “I” and “mine” do not make assumptions about the transcendent perfections. Without regression, they will attain genuinely perfect enlightenment.
Those bodhisattvas who strive toward genuinely perfect enlightenment are engaged in a difficult task, inasmuch as all things are empty of their own defining characteristics. Even so, having understood that all things are like an illusion and dreamlike, they set out toward genuinely perfect enlightenment for the benefit, well-being, and happiness of all worlds as a sanctuary, a protector, a refuge, an ally, an island, a torch-bearer, a lamp, a helmsman, a guide, and a support. This cultivation of the transcendent perfection of wisdom is the non-cultivation of phenomena, attributes, and attainments.
Bodhisattvas of irreversible realization should investigate everything without fixation. They will not be swayed by the pointless words of others or captivated by afflicted mental states. They will not be separated from the other transcendent perfections and will not be afraid when they hear this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom. Their minds will not be averted from genuinely perfect enlightenment. They will delight in hearing this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom and retain it in the appropriate manner. When these bodhisattvas are successful in their practice, their realization will be irreversible.
This profound transcendent perfection of wisdom is hard to realize, for which reason the mind of the buddhas is inclined toward carefree inaction and not toward teaching. Manifestly perfect buddhahood has not been attained by anyone, anywhere. This is the profundity of all things, in which habitual ideas of duality do not at all exist. Just as the real nature of the buddhas is unobstructed, undifferentiated, non-particular, and without duality, so is the real nature of all things.
Just as a wingless bird will be mortally injured on its descent, it is inevitable that unskilled bodhisattvas who lack the transcendent perfection of wisdom will regress. On the other hand, skillful bodhisattvas whose minds are imbued with great compassion, and who cultivate emptiness, signlessness, and aspirationlessness, enter into the maturity of the bodhisattvas, without conceptualizing or apprehending anything, and attain manifestly perfect buddhahood.
It may seem that genuinely perfect enlightenment is easy to manifest because all things are empty of their own essential nature. However, this is exactly why it is hard to bring forth genuinely perfect enlightenment. Once bodhisattvas accept that all things resemble space, they will attain manifestly perfect buddhahood, but if it were easy for them to do so, bodhisattvas who don the protective armor would not regress.
Bodhisattvas who wish to attain genuinely perfect enlightenment should cultivate equanimity with respect to all sentient beings, addressing them with gentle words. They should cultivate an attitude free from enmity, regarding all sentient beings as their close relatives or peers. They should abstain from non-virtuous actions and encourage others to do so. They should engage in meditative experiences, and rejoice in others who do so. They should cultivate the causal and fruitional attributes, and rejoice in others who do so—all without apprehending anything.
Moreover, bodhisattvas should comprehend suffering, abandon the origin of suffering, actualize the cessation of suffering, and cultivate the path that leads to the cessation of suffering, and they should rejoice in others who do so. They should bring sentient beings to maturation, refine the buddhafields,18 and rejoice in others who do likewise.
Bodhisattvas should determine that phenomena and cyclic existence are empty, but they should do so with an unwavering mind. Just as a heroic man can escort relatives safely home through a terrifying wilderness by the power of discernment, bodhisattvas who have achieved and maintain a state of mind imbued with the four immeasurable aspirations and the six transcendent perfections will continue to search for omniscience, and even though they are established in emptiness, signlessness, and aspirationlessness, they will not be swayed into regression without perfecting the attainment of omniscience.
Bodhisattvas analyze the causal and fruitional attributes, resolving to attain manifestly perfect buddhahood for the sake of sentient beings who mistakenly continue to apprehend phenomena, but they will not actualize the finality of existence, through which they would regress to lesser attainments. Even though there are many bodhisattvas engaged in the pursuit of enlightenment, few of them have precisely investigated the six transcendent perfections on the irreversible level and avoided regression.
The fifth section of the sūtra, “Culminating Clear Realization,” includes the four trainings on the path of preparation (warmth, peak, acceptance and supremacy), as well as the training on the paths of insight and cultivation, ending with the adamantine meditative stability and the elimination of mistaken notions. It extends from the second part of chapter 25 through to the end of chapter 27.
When bodhisattvas train in the real nature of all things, they do train in the causal and fruitional attributes, and they will swiftly attain the level of an irreversible bodhisattva. Only bodhisattvas who wish to liberate all sentient beings from cyclic existence can undertake this training, and when they have done so, they will never be disadvantaged or separated from the sacred doctrine. They become absorbed in meditative experiences, but on arising from these, they will not linger in blissful states. Instead, they will refine all the fruitional attributes, without regression.
Bodhisattvas who wish to become a protector and refuge to all those sentient beings who are unprotected and without a refuge, who wish to become an ally of those who are without allies, who wish to become an eye to the blind, who wish to become a lamp for sentient beings who are immersed in the darkness of fundamental ignorance, who wish to attain genuinely perfect buddhahood, who wish to roar the lion’s roar of the completely perfect buddhas, and so forth, should all train in this profound transcendent perfection of wisdom, and swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood.
Those bodhisattvas will never regress from genuinely perfect enlightenment, but, seeing the sufferings of cyclic existence, they will resolve to benefit the whole world and alleviate its sufferings. Abandoning all thoughts, concepts, and imaginations, in one sense they do not in the slightest achieve anything difficult because they do not apprehend anything that could be actualized.
However, the astonishing singular difficulty is not that they do not regress to lower attainments, but that they don the armor that resolves to establish innumerable sentient beings in buddhahood, while those beings whom they would guide are utterly non-apprehensible. Bodhisattvas who, for the sake of sentient beings, think they should don the armor of great compassion would as well think they should seek to do battle with space. If, when this is explained they are not discouraged, then they are practicing the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and, free from doubt, they will gradually come to rest on the irreversible levels, and attain omniscience.
Bodhisattvas who practice each one of the transcendent perfections acquire each of the other transcendent perfections through physical, verbal, and mental acts of loving kindness, and through abstinence, courage, persistence, lack of enmity, and an attitude that regards gifts and recipients in a non-dualistic, non-focusing, and illusion-like manner. They may enter into and arise from their meditative experiences sequentially, or they may enter into the meditative stability known as the yawning lion, in which the formless absorptions and meditative concentrations are reversed. Abiding in this meditative stability, they attain the sameness of all things.
The sixth section of the sūtra, “Serial Clear Realization,” includes the serial trainings in the six transcendent perfections, the serial trainings in the six recollections, and the serial training in the realization that phenomena are without essential nature. This section is omitted from this version of the sūtra, which continues instead with section seven, “Instantaneous Clear Realization.”
This has four topics: maturation, non-maturation, lack of defining characteristics, and non-duality.
Bodhisattvas practice the transcendent perfections for the sake of all sentient beings, assuming the five aggregates which are dreamlike, without essential nature, and without defining characteristics. They perfect all meditative experiences and all causal and fruitional attributes, and then, participating in cyclic existence for the sake of all sentient beings, they are untainted by the defects of cyclic existence. Understanding that all things are without defining characteristics, they go on to attain omniscience. Owing to the emptiness of essential nature and the emptiness of ultimate reality, they do not conceptualize and they come to accept that phenomena are non-arising. Having brought sentient beings to maturation, they will attain manifestly perfect buddhahood by means of instantaneous wisdom. Well trained in emptiness, they do not apprehend anything at all apart from emptiness. All apprehension of phenomena, causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments constitutes the immaturity of the bodhisattvas. The absence of all apprehension constitutes the maturity of the bodhisattvas. The bodhisattvas who practice the transcendent perfection of wisdom perceive that all things are gathered within it, but do not apprehend anything, owing to non-duality. All things are undifferentiated, without defining characteristics, and subject neither to arising nor cessation.
The last section of the sūtra, concerning the fruitional buddha body of reality, comprises the buddha body of essentiality, the buddha body of gnosis and reality, the buddha body of perfect resource, and the buddha body of emanation. It extends from the second part of chapter 28 through to the end of chapter 30.
Investigating conditioned phenomena through emptiness, bodhisattvas teach ordinary people who grasp dreams as reality that all phenomena are empty of notions of “I” and “mine.” Since all phenomena arise from dependent origination, and are grasped erroneously through the maturation of past actions, what other cause can there be for their perception of non-entities as entities? Skillful bodhisattvas cause sentient beings to engage successively with each of the six transcendent perfections and then to turn away from states of indulgence to enter into the expanse of final nirvāṇa, or at least to become established in the causal and fruitional attributes. Although all things are dreamlike non-entities, abiding in the six transcendent perfections, bodhisattvas attract sentient beings by their practice of the six transcendent perfections.
Bodhisattvas attract sentient beings with the mundane and supramundane gifts of the sacred doctrine. The former concerns mundane phenomena and meditative experiences. The latter establishes sentient beings through skill in means in the causal and fruitional attributes, and attainments, so that they renounce afflicted mental states, and all propensities for rebirth. Once bodhisattvas have attained omniscience, they will be called buddhas.
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One19 was residing at Vulture Peak near Rājagṛha with a large monastic gathering comprising many thousands of fully ordained monks. All of them were arhats who had attained the cessation of contaminants and were without afflicted mental states, fully controlled, their minds thoroughly liberated, their wisdom well liberated, thoroughbreds, mighty nāgas, their tasks accomplished, their work completed, their burdens relinquished, their own objectives already fulfilled, the fetters binding them to the rebirth process completely severed, their minds thoroughly liberated through their genuine understanding, having perfected the highest of all mental faculties, with the exception of one person—the venerable Ānanda, a disciple who had merely entered the stream. Also present were some five hundred fully ordained nuns, laymen, and laywomen, all of whom had seen the truth.20
There, too, were many thousands of great bodhisattva beings, all of whom had mastered the dhāraṇīs and attained the meditative stabilities,21 and were abiding in emptiness, their perceptual range being one of signlessness, their aspirations free from discrimination, their attainments the acceptance of sameness and inspired eloquence that was unimpeded. Indeed they all had the five extrasensory powers22 and captivating speech. Their ethical conduct was without artificiality and they had no thoughts of ulterior profit, acquisition, or fame.
They could teach the sacred doctrine, free from worldliness. They had perfected their acceptance of the profound nature of phenomena; they had acquired assurance and completely gone beyond demonic activities. Liberated from all obscurations associated with past actions, they had accumulated merits by teaching the sacred doctrine, extensively accumulating their aspirations over countless eons.[F.2.a] Their speech was honest with a smiling demeanor, their countenances without frowns of anger. They possessed the assurance that overwhelms endless assemblies. They were skilled in their emancipation from cyclic existence, as they had demonstrated for many tens of millions of eons.
They regarded phenomena as a magical display, a mirage, a dream, the moon reflected in water, an optical aberration, empty space, an echo, a castle in the sky, or a phantom, and they were endowed with immeasurable assurance. They were skilled in comprehending the mental attitudes and interests of all sentient beings, and the knowledge that engages in subtlety.23 Toward all sentient beings their attitude was without any animosity and imbued with great tolerance. They were skilled in definitively introducing them to the nature of reality. They held them in their aspirations for infinite buddhafields. At all times they uninterruptedly actualized the meditative stability that recollects the buddhas of countless world systems. They were well-versed in questioning the innumerable buddhas, and skillful in the abandoning of afflicted mental states motivated by diverse mistaken views. They were all bodhisattvas who knew how to actualize one hundred thousand emanational displays by means of their meditative stability.
Among them were the following:24 the great being Bhadrapāla, along with Ratnākara, Sārthavāha, Naradatta, Grahadatta,25 Varuṇadatta, Indradatta, Uttaramati, Viśeṣamati, Vardhamānamati, Amoghadarśin, Susaṃprasthita, Suvikrāntavikrāmin, Nityodyukta, Anikṣiptadhura, Sūryagarbha, Candragarbha, Anupamacintin, Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī, Ratnamudrāhasta, the bodhisattva Nityotkṣiptahasta and the great bodhisattva being Maitreya,[F.2.b] heading many thousands of accompanying bodhisattvas, all of whom were youthful in appearance.
At that time, the Blessed One outshone Śakra, Brahmā, and all the worldly protectors. Then, in the presence of these four assemblies, he demonstrated multiple miraculous forms, vivid, brilliant and distinct, which were emanated through his magical abilities. Also, from all the pores of his body, an effulgence of light rays shone forth—many hundreds of billion trillions in number.
Thereupon, the venerable Śāradvatīputra, who was present within the assembly, observed those miraculous forms emanated through the miraculous abilities of the Tathāgata. He was delighted. He rejoiced. His extreme joy gave rise to such delight and contentment that, rising from his seat, with his upper robe over one shoulder, he rested his right knee on the ground and placed his hands together in the gesture of homage, facing in the direction of Blessed One, while asking the Blessed One as follows: “If I might be permitted to request the Reverend Lord to pronounce on them, may I put certain questions to the Reverend Lord?”
The Blessed One then replied to the venerable Śāradvatīputra, “Śāradvatīputra, since you always have had opportunities to question the Tathāgata, you may ask whatever you wish, and you should be satisfied with the answers to your questions.”
The venerable Śāradvatīputra then asked the Blessed One, “Reverend Lord, with regard to that which is called the transcendent perfection of wisdom,26 Reverend Lord, what exactly is the transcendent perfection of wisdom of the bodhisattvas? By perfecting what sacred doctrine do bodhisattvas perfect the transcendent perfection of wisdom and swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed, genuinely perfect enlightenment?”[F.3.a]
Thereupon, the Blessed One inspired the venerable Śāradvatīputra with the words, “Excellent, Śāradvatīputra! Excellent! Excellent! Through the blessings of the Tathāgata you have made a splendid request. You have had an excellent idea! To that end, you should listen carefully, keep my words in mind, and I shall teach the transcendent perfection of wisdom.”
“Reverend Lord, so be it!” he replied.
So it was that the venerable Śāradvatīputra listened to the Blessed One, and the Lord replied, “Śāradvatīputra, that which is called the transcendent perfection of wisdom is the absence of fixation with respect to all things. Śāradvatīputra, bodhisattvas who are without fixation perfect the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and will indeed swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed and genuinely perfect enlightenment.”
Then he asked, “Reverend Lord, what are all those things on which great bodhisattva beings27 should not be fixated?”
The Blessed One replied, “Śāradvatīputra, the expression ‘all things’ denotes the following: the five psycho-physical aggregates, the twelve sense fields, the eighteen sensory elements, the four noble truths, the twelve links of dependent origination, the four applications of mindfulness, the four correct exertions, the four supports for miraculous ability, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven branches of enlightenment, the noble eightfold path, the emptiness that is a gateway to liberation, the signlessness that is a gateway to liberation, the aspirationlessness that is a gateway to liberation, the four meditative concentrations, the four immeasurable aspirations, the four formless meditative absorptions, the eight aspects of liberation, the nine serial steps of meditative absorption, the nine contemplations of impurity, the ten recollections, the six aspects of perception,[F.3.b] the knowledge of phenomena, the subsequent knowledge, the knowledge of other minds, the knowledge of relative appearances, the knowledge of suffering, the knowledge of the origin of suffering, the knowledge of the cessation of suffering, the knowledge of the path, the knowledge of the extinction of contaminants, the knowledge that contaminants will not be regenerated, the knowledge that is definitive, and similarly, the meditative stability endowed with ideation and scrutiny, the meditative stability free from ideation and merely endowed with scrutiny, the meditative stability free from both ideation and scrutiny, the faculties that will enable knowledge of all that is unknown, the faculties that acquire the knowledge of all things, the faculties endowed with the knowledge of all things, the eight sense fields of mastery, the ten sense fields of total consummation, the eighteen aspects of emptiness, the ten powers of the tathāgatas, the four assurances, the four kinds of exact knowledge, great loving kindness, great compassion, the eighteen distinct qualities of the buddhas, and likewise, the understanding of all phenomena, the understanding of the aspects of the path, the understanding of omniscience, the six transcendent perfections, the five extrasensory powers,28 the five eyes, the thirty-two major marks of a superior man, and the eighty excellent minor marks.29 All these are the things on which great bodhisattva beings should not be fixated. One who is without fixation perfects the transcendent perfection of wisdom and will also swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed and genuinely perfect enlightenment.”
Then the venerable Śāradvatīputra asked the Blessed One, “Reverend Lord, what are the ‘five psycho-physical aggregates’ and likewise [those other phenomena], up to and including the ‘twelve links of dependent origination’? What are the ‘four applications of mindfulness’, and likewise [those other causal attributes] up to and including the ‘noble eightfold path’? What is the ‘emptiness that is a gateway to liberation,’ and likewise [those other attainments], up to and including ‘omniscience’? What are the ‘six transcendent perfections,’[F.4.a] and likewise [those other fruitional attributes], up to and including the ‘eighty minor marks’?”
Thereupon, the Blessed One addressed the venerable Śāradvatīputra as follows: “Śāradvatīputra, the ‘five psycho-physical aggregates’ comprise (1) physical forms, (2) feelings, (3) perceptions, (4) formative predispositions, and (5) consciousness.
“If you ask what are the ‘twelve sense fields,’ they comprise six that are inner and six that are outer. These are called the twelve sense fields. Among them, if you ask what are the ‘six inner sense fields,’ they comprise (1) the sense field of the eyes, (2) the sense field of the ears, (3) the sense field of the nose, (4) the sense field of the tongue, (5) the sense field of the body, and (6) the sense field of the mental faculty. These are called the six inner sense fields.
“Then, if you ask what are the ‘six outer sense fields,’ they comprise (7) the sense field of sights, (8) the sense field of sounds, (9) the sense field of odors, (10) the sense field of tastes, (11) the sense field of tangibles, and (12) the sense field of mental phenomena. These are called the six outer sense fields.30
“If you ask what are the ‘eighteen sensory elements,’ they comprise (1) the sensory element of the eyes, (2) the sensory element of sights, and (3) the sensory element of visual consciousness; (4) the sensory element of the ears, (5) the sensory element of sounds, and (6) the sensory element of auditory consciousness; (7) the sensory element of the nose, (8) the sensory element of odors, and (9) the sensory element of olfactory consciousness; (10) the sensory element of the tongue, (11) the sensory element of tastes, and (12) the sensory element of gustatory consciousness; (13) the sensory element of the body, (14) the sensory element of tangibles, and (15) the sensory element of tactile consciousness; and (16) the sensory element of the mental faculty, (17) the sensory element of mental phenomena, and (18) the sensory element of mental consciousness. These are called the eighteen sensory elements.31
“If you ask what are the ‘four noble truths,’ they comprise (1) the noble truth of suffering, (2) the noble truth of the origin of suffering, (3) the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and (4) the noble truth of the path. These are called the four noble truths.32
“If you ask what are the ‘twelve links of dependent origination,’ they comprise (1) fundamental ignorance, contingent on which (2) formative predispositions arise; (3) consciousness, which arises contingent on formative predispositions; (4) name and form, which arise contingent on consciousness; (5) the six sense fields, which arise contingent on name and form; (6) sensory contact, which arises contingent on the six sense fields; (7) sensation, which arises contingent on sensory contact;[F.4.b] (8) craving, which arises contingent on sensation; (9) grasping, which arises contingent on craving; (10) the rebirth process, which arises contingent on grasping; (11) actual birth, which arises contingent on the rebirth process; and (12) aging and death, along with sorrow, lamentation, suffering, mental discomfort, and agitation, which all arise contingent on actual birth. It is in this way that these great corporeal aggregates, exclusively endowed with suffering, arise.
“Conversely, through the cessation of fundamental ignorance, formative predispositions cease. Through the cessation of formative predispositions, consciousness ceases. Through the cessation of consciousness, name and form cease. Through the cessation of name and form, the six sense fields cease. Through the cessation of the six sense fields, sensory contact ceases. Through the cessation of sensory contact, sensation ceases. Through the cessation of sensation, craving ceases. Through the cessation of craving, grasping ceases. Through the cessation of grasping, the rebirth process ceases. Through the cessation of the rebirth process, actual birth ceases. Through the cessation of actual birth, aging and death cease; and through the cessation of aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, mental discomfort, and agitation all cease. It is in this way that these corporeal aggregates, exclusively endowed with suffering, cease.
“These two processes are respectively said to follow and reverse the sequence in which the twelve links of dependent origination arise.33
“If you ask what are the ‘four applications of mindfulness,’ they comprise (1) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to the physical body, observes the physical body; (2) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to feelings, observes feelings; (3) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to the mind, observes the mind; and (4) the application of mindfulness which, with regard to phenomena, observes phenomena. These are called the four applications of mindfulness.34
“If you ask what are the ‘four correct exertions,’ (1) great bodhisattva beings resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that negative and non-virtuous attributes which have not yet arisen might not be developed; (2) they resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that negative and non-virtuous attributes which have previously arisen might be renounced;[F.5.a] (3) they resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that virtuous attributes which have not yet arisen might be developed; and (4) they resolve, struggle, strive, persevere with tenacity, and rightly aspire that virtuous attributes which have previously arisen might remain, be unforgotten, flourish, and reach complete perfection in the future, through cultivation. These are called the four correct exertions.
“If you ask what are the ‘four supports for miraculous abilities,’ they comprise (1) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of resolution with the formative force of exertion, (2) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of perseverance with the formative force of exertion, (3) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of mind with the formative force of exertion, and (4) the support for miraculous ability combining the meditative stability of scrutiny with the formative force of exertion. These are called the four supports for miraculous ability.
“If you ask what are the ‘five faculties,’ they comprise (1) the faculty of faith, (2) the faculty of perseverance, (3) the faculty of recollection, (4) the faculty of meditative stability, and (5) the faculty of wisdom. These are called the five faculties.
“If you ask what are the ‘five powers,’ they similarly comprise (1) the power of faith, (2) the power of perseverance, (3) the power of recollection, (4) the power of meditative stability, and (5) the power of wisdom. These are called the five powers.
“If you ask what are the ‘seven branches of enlightenment,’ they comprise (1) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct recollection, (2) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct doctrinal analysis, (3) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct perseverance, (4) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct delight, (5) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct mental and physical refinement, (6) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct meditative stability, and (7) the branch of enlightenment that entails correct equanimity. These are called the seven branches of enlightenment.
“If you ask what is the ‘noble eightfold path,’ it comprises (1) correct view, (2) correct ideation, (3) correct speech, (4) correct action,[F.5.b] (5) correct livelihood, (6) correct effort, (7) correct recollection, and (8) correct meditative stability. These are the branches of the noble eightfold path.
“If you ask what is ‘emptiness as a gateway to liberation,’ the state of mind which discerns that all things are empty of their own defining characteristics is emptiness as a gateway to liberation. This is called emptiness as a gateway to liberation.
“If you ask what is ‘signlessness as a gateway to liberation,’ the state of mind which discerns in all respects that all things are signless in terms of their own defining characteristics is signlessness as a gateway to liberation. This is called signlessness as a gateway to liberation.
“If you ask what is ‘aspirationlessness as a gateway to liberation,’ the state of mind in which all things are not formed, and there is nothing to be formed, is aspirationlessness as a gateway to liberation. This is called aspirationlessness as a gateway to liberation.35
“If you ask what are the ‘four meditative concentrations,’ they are as follows: (1) Bodhisattvas achieve and maintain the first meditative concentration where there is freedom from desires, and freedom from negative and non-virtuous attributes, while ideation and scrutiny are present, alongside the joy and bliss that arise from freedom. (2) They achieve and maintain the second meditative concentration where there is an intense inner clarity, free from both ideation and scrutiny, the absence of ideation and scrutiny being due to one-pointed mental focus, while the joy and bliss that arise from meditative stability are present. (3) They achieve and maintain the third meditative concentration where joy is absent, abiding in equanimity due to the absence of attachment to joy, while both mindfulness and alertness are present and bliss is experienced by the body. This is what sublime beings describe as ‘mindful, blissful, abiding in bliss, and equanimous.’ (4) They achieve and maintain the fourth meditative concentration where even that sense of bliss is abandoned and former states of suffering have also been eliminated. Here, neither suffering nor bliss is present because blissful and unhappy states of mind have both subsided,[F.6.a] while equanimity and mindfulness are utterly pure. These are called the four meditative concentrations.36
“If you ask what are the ‘four immeasurable aspirations,’ they comprise (1) loving kindness, (2) compassion, (3) empathetic joy, and (4) equanimity. These are called the four immeasurable aspirations.
“If you ask what are the ‘four formless meditative absorptions,’ they comprise (1) the meditative absorption of the sense field of infinite space, (2) the meditative absorption of the sense field of infinite consciousness, (3) the meditative absorption of the sense field of nothing-at-all, and (4) the meditative absorption of neither perception nor non-perception. These are called the four formless meditative absorptions.
“If you ask what constitute the ‘eight aspects of liberation,’ they are as follows: (1) The first aspect of liberation ensues when corporeal beings observe physical forms [in order to compose the mind]. (2) The second aspect of liberation ensues when formless beings endowed with internal perception observe external physical forms. (3) The third aspect of liberation ensues when beings are inclined toward pleasant states. (4) The fourth aspect of liberation ensues when the perceptions of physical forms have been completely transcended in all respects, when the perceptions of obstructed phenomena have subsided, and the mind does not engage with diverse perceptions, so that one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite space, thinking, ‘Space is infinite.’ (5) The fifth aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of infinite space has been completely transcended in all respects, and when one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite consciousness, thinking, ‘Consciousness is infinite.’ (6) The sixth aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of infinite consciousness has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of nothing-at-all, thinking, ‘There is nothing at all.’ (7) The seventh aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of nothing-at-all has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception. (8) The eighth aspect of liberation ensues when the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the cessation of all perceptions and feelings. These are called the eight aspects of liberation.37[F.6.b]
“If you ask what are the ‘nine serial steps of meditative absorption,’ they are as follows: (1) The first meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the first meditative concentration, that is to say, when there is freedom from desires, and freedom from negative and non-virtuous attributes, while ideation and scrutiny are present, alongside the joy and bliss that arise from freedom. (2) The second meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the second meditative concentration, that is to say, when there is an intense inner clarity, free from both ideation and scrutiny, the absence of ideation and scrutiny being due to one-pointed mental focus, while the joy and bliss that arise from meditative stability are present. (3) The third meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the third meditative concentration, that is to say, when one abides in equanimity due to the absence of attachment to joy, while both mindfulness and alertness are present, and bliss is still experienced by the body. This is what sublime beings describe as ‘mindful, blissful, abiding in bliss, and equanimous.’ (4) The fourth meditative absorption ensues when one achieves and maintains the fourth meditative concentration, that is to say, when even that sense of bliss is abandoned and former states of suffering have also been eliminated. Here, neither suffering nor bliss is present because blissful and unhappy states of mind have both subsided, while equanimity and mindfulness are utterly pure. (5) The fifth meditative absorption ensues when the perceptions of physical forms have been completely transcended in all respects, when the perceptions of obstructed, material phenomena have subsided, and the mind does not engage with diverse perceptions, so that one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite space, thinking, ‘Space is infinite.’ (6) The sixth meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of infinite space has been completely transcended in all respects, and when one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite consciousness, thinking, ‘Consciousness is infinite.’ (7) The seventh meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of infinite consciousness has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of nothing-at-all, thinking, ‘There is nothing at all.’[F.7.a] (8) The eighth meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of nothing-at-all has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception. (9) The ninth meditative absorption ensues when the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception has been completely transcended in all respects, and one achieves and abides in the cessation of all perceptions and feelings. These are called the nine serial steps of meditative absorption.38
“If you ask what are the ‘nine contemplations of impurity,’ they are as follows: (1) contemplation of a bloated corpse, (2) contemplation of a worm-infested corpse, (3) contemplation of a bloody corpse, (4) contemplation of a putrefied corpse, (5) contemplation of a blue-black corpse, (6) contemplation of a devoured corpse, (7) contemplation of a dismembered corpse, (8) contemplation of a skeleton, and (9) contemplation of an immolated corpse. These are called the nine contemplations of impurity.
“If you ask what are the ‘ten recollections,’ they are as follows: (1) recollection of the Buddha, (2) recollection of the Dharma, (3) recollection of the Saṅgha, (4) recollection of ethical discipline, (5) recollection of renunciation, (6) recollection of the god realms, (7) recollection of quiescence, (8) recollection of respiration, (9) recollection of physicality, and (10) recollection of death. These are called the ten recollections.39
“If you ask what are the ‘six aspects of perception,’ they are as follows: (1) perception of impermanence, (2) perception of suffering, (3) perception of non-self, (4) perception of unattractiveness, (5) perception of death, and (6) perception of disinterest in all mundane things. These are called the six aspects of perception.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of phenomena,’ it is the limited understanding that the five psycho-physical aggregates are to be purified. This is called knowledge of phenomena.
“If you ask what is ‘subsequent knowledge,’ it is the understanding that the eye is impermanent, and, likewise, it is the understanding that the ears, nose, tongue, body, mental faculty, sights, sounds, odors, tastes, tangibles, and mental phenomena are all impermanent.[F.7.b] This is called subsequent knowledge.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of other minds,’ it is the absence of doubt with regard to phenomena associated with the minds and mental states of other sentient beings and other individuals. This is called knowledge of other minds.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of relative appearances,’ it is the understanding of the aspects of the path. This is called the knowledge of relative appearances.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of suffering,’ it is the understanding of how suffering arises and endures. That is called the knowledge of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the origin of suffering,’ it is the understanding that the origin of suffering is to be abandoned. This is called knowledge of the origin of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the cessation of suffering,’ it is the understanding that suffering has ceased. This is called knowledge of the cessation of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the path,’ it is the understanding of the noble eightfold path. This is called knowledge of the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge of the extinction of contaminants,’ it is the understanding that desire, hatred, and delusion have ended. This is called the extinction of contaminants.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge that contaminants will not be regenerated,’ it is the understanding that one will not subsequently be reborn among the living beings of phenomenal existence. This is called the knowledge that contaminants will not be regenerated.
“If you ask what is the ‘knowledge that is definitive,’ it is the tathāgatas’ gnosis of omniscience. This is called the knowledge that is definitive.40
“If you ask what are the ‘faculties that will enable knowledge of all that is unknown,’ they comprise the faculty of faith, the faculty of perseverance, the faculty of recollection, the faculty of meditative stability, and the faculty of wisdom, which individual trainees who have not attained actual realization acquire. These are called the faculties that will enable knowledge of all that is unknown.41
“If you ask what are the ‘faculties that acquire the knowledge of all things,’ they comprise the faculty of faith, the faculty of perseverance, the faculty of recollection, the faculty of meditative stability, and the faculty of wisdom, of which individual trainees who have attained actual realization partake. These are called the faculties that acquire the knowledge of all things.[F.8.a]
“If you ask what are the ‘faculties endowed with the knowledge of all things,’ they comprise the faculty of faith, the faculty of perseverance, the faculty of recollection, the faculty of meditative stability, and the faculty of wisdom, of which tathāgatas, arhats, genuinely perfect buddhas partake. These are called the faculties endowed with the knowledge of all things.42
“If you ask what is the ‘meditative stability endowed with ideation and scrutiny,’ it denotes the first meditative concentration which is achieved and maintained when there is freedom from desires, and freedom from negative and non-virtuous attributes, while joy and bliss are present. This is called the meditative stability endowed with ideation and scrutiny.
“If you ask what is the ‘meditative stability free from ideation and merely endowed with scrutiny,’ it denotes the interval between the first and second meditative concentrations. This is called the meditative stability free from ideation and merely endowed with scrutiny.
“If you ask what is the ‘meditative stability free from both ideation and scrutiny,’ it denotes the meditative absorptions, starting from the first meditative concentration and continuing as far as the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception. This is called the meditative stability free from both ideation and scrutiny.
“If you ask what are the ‘eight sense fields of mastery,’ they are as follows:43 (1) The first sense field of mastery refers to the [miraculous] perceptual transformation that ensues when one who perceives inner forms regards lesser external forms,44 along with excellent colors and inferior colors, understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them. (2) The second sense field of mastery refers to the [miraculous] perceptual transformation that ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards greater external forms, along with excellent colors and inferior colors, understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them. (3) The third sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards blue external forms, blue colors, blue appearances, and blue reflections, such as[F.8.b] the blue [form], the blue color, the blue appearance, and the blue reflection of the flax blossom or excellent blue cloth from Vārāṇasī. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards blue external forms, blue colors, blue appearances, and blue reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them].45 (4) The fourth sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards yellow external forms, yellow colors, yellow appearances, and yellow reflections, such as the yellow [form], yellow color, yellow appearance, and yellow reflection of the cassia flower or excellent yellow cloth from Vārāṇasī. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards yellow external forms, yellow colors, yellow appearances, and yellow reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them]. (5) The fifth sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards red external forms, red colors, red appearances, and red reflections, such as the red [form], red color, red appearance, and red reflection of the pentapetes flower or excellent red cloth from Vārāṇasī. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards red external forms, red colors, red appearances, and red reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them]. (6) The sixth sense field of mastery [refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that] ensues when one who perceives inner formlessness regards white external forms, white colors, white appearances, and white reflections, such as the white [form], white color, white appearance, and white reflection of the [morning] star Venus [or excellent white cloth from Vārāṇasī]. In the same way, one who perceives inner formlessness regards white external forms, white colors, white appearances, and white reflections, [and understands these forms, having attained mastery over them, and sees them, having attained mastery over them]. (7) The seventh sense field of mastery ensues when the perceptions of physical forms have been completely transcended in all respects, when the perceptions of obstructed, material phenomena have subsided,[F.9.a] and the mind does not engage with diverse perceptions, so that one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite space, thinking, ‘Space is infinite.’ (8) The eighth sense field of mastery ensues when the sense field of infinite space has been completely transcended in all respects, and when one achieves and abides in the sense field of infinite consciousness, thinking, ‘Consciousness is infinite.’46 These are called the eight sense fields of mastery.
“If you ask what are the ‘ten sense fields of total consummation,’ they comprise (1) the total consummation of the earth element, (2) the total consummation of the water element, (3) the total consummation of the fire element, (4) the total consummation of the wind element, (5) the total consummation of the space element, (6) the total consummation of blueness, (7) the total consummation of yellowness, (8) the total consummation of redness, (9) the total consummation of whiteness, and (10) the total consummation of consciousness. These are called the ten sense fields of total consummation. [Through these successive meditative stabilities] (1) considering all elements to be present in the earth element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the earth element; (2) considering all elements to be present in the water element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the water element; (3) considering all elements to be present in the fire element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the fire element; (4) considering all elements to be present in the wind element, all of them are transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the wind element; (5) considering all elements to be present in the space element, all of them are then transformed into a single element, which is exclusively the space element; (6) considering all elements to be present in blueness, all of them are transformed into blueness; (7) considering all elements to be present in yellowness, all of them are transformed exclusively into yellowness; (8) considering all elements to be present in redness, all of them are transformed exclusively into redness; (9) considering all elements to be present in whiteness, all of them are transformed exclusively into whiteness; and (10) considering all elements to be present in consciousness,[F.9.b] all of them are transformed exclusively into consciousness. In this way, earth, water, fire, wind, space, blueness, yellowness, redness, whiteness, and consciousness are all transformed exclusively into a single element. These are called the sense fields of total consummation. It is because they intensify the production of their respective elements to the point of consummation that they are called sense fields of total consummation, and they are also known as sense fields of total consummation because each element is respectively transformed into all the others.47
“If you ask what are the ‘eighteen aspects of emptiness,’ they comprise (1) emptiness of internal phenomena, (2) emptiness of external phenomena, (3) emptiness of both external and internal phenomena, (4) emptiness of emptiness, (5) emptiness of great extent, (6) emptiness of ultimate reality, (7) emptiness of conditioned phenomena, (8) emptiness of unconditioned phenomena, (9) emptiness of the unlimited, (10) emptiness of that which has neither beginning nor end, (11) emptiness of non-dispersal, (12) emptiness of inherent existence, (13) emptiness of intrinsic defining characteristics, (14) emptiness of all things, (15) emptiness of non-apprehension, (16) emptiness of non-entities, (17) emptiness of essential nature, and (18) emptiness of the essential nature of non-entities.48
“If, among them, you ask what is the ‘emptiness of internal phenomena,’ the term ‘internal phenomena’ comprises the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mental faculty. Among them, the eyes are empty of the eyes because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. Similarly, the ears, the nose, the tongue, the body, and the mental faculty are, respectively, empty of [the ears, the nose, the tongue, the body, and] the mental faculty, because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. That is what is called the emptiness of internal phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of external phenomena,’ the term ‘external phenomena’ comprises sights, sounds, odors, tastes, tangibles, and mental phenomena. Among them, sights are empty of sights because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate.[F.10.a] If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. Similarly, sounds, odors, tangibles, and mental phenomena are, respectively, empty of [sounds, odors, tangibles, and] mental phenomena, because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, that is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of external phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of both external and internal phenomena,’ the term ‘external and internal phenomena’ comprises the six inner sense fields and the six outer sense fields. Among them, internal phenomena are empty of internal phenomena because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is their very nature. External phenomena are also empty of external phenomena because they do not endure and they do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of external and internal phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of emptiness,’ that emptiness which is the emptiness of all phenomena is also empty of the emptiness of all phenomena because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of emptiness.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of great extent,’ the eastern direction is empty of the eastern direction because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is its very nature. The southern, western, northern, and four intermediate directions—all eight—are also similarly empty of themselves, and the zenith is empty of the zenith, while the nadir is empty of the nadir, because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of great extent.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of ultimate reality,’ the term ‘ultimate reality’ denotes nirvāṇa in the context of the ‘emptiness of ultimate reality.’ In this regard, nirvāṇa is empty of nirvāṇa because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of ultimate reality.[F.10.b]
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of conditioned phenomena,’ this refers to the world system of desire, the world system of form, and the world system of formlessness, among which the world system of desire is empty of the world system of desire, and similarly, the world system of form is empty of the world system of form, and the world system of formlessness is empty of the world system of formlessness because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of conditioned phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of unconditioned phenomena,’ the term ‘unconditioned phenomena’ denotes anything that does not arise, that does not abide, that does not disintegrate, and that does not change into something else. In this regard, unconditioned phenomena are empty of unconditioned phenomena because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of unconditioned phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of the unlimited,’ the arising of anything [which has no limits] is utterly non-apprehensible because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of the unlimited.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of that which has neither beginning nor end,’ the coming to pass of anything [in cyclic existence that has no beginning or end] is utterly non-apprehensible because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of that which has neither beginning nor end.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of non-dispersal,’ this denotes anything in which there is no dispersion. [Things are empty of non-dispersal] because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of non-dispersal.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of inherent existence,’ this denotes the true nature of all conditioned and unconditioned phenomena, which is not created by the śrāvakas, not created by the pratyekabuddhas, and not fashioned by the lord buddhas. [Inherent existence is empty of inherent existence] because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of inherent existence.[F.11.a]
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of all intrinsic defining characteristics,’ this denotes the intrinsic defining characteristic of physical forms, which is the capacity to assume physical forms; the intrinsic defining characteristic of feelings, which is emotional experience; the intrinsic defining characteristic of perceptions, which is comprehensibility; the intrinsic defining characteristic of formative predispositions which is conditioning; and the intrinsic defining characteristic of consciousness, which is cognizance. It applies to the defining characteristics of conditioned phenomena [such as these], and similarly extends as far as the defining characteristics of unconditioned phenomena. All these intrinsic defining characteristics are empty of their own intrinsic defining characteristics because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of intrinsic defining characteristics.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of all things,’ the term ‘all things’ denotes the five psycho-physical aggregates, the twelve sense fields, the eighteen sensory elements, corporeal phenomena, formless phenomena, conditioned phenomena, and unconditioned phenomena. All such things are empty of all things because they do not endure and do not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because it is their very nature. That is called the emptiness of all things.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of non-apprehension,’ it is that which does not apprehend any phenomena at all. [Non-apprehension is empty of non-apprehension] because it does not endure and does not disintegrate. If you ask why, it is because that is its very nature. That is called the emptiness of non-apprehension.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of non-entities,’ it is the non-apprehension of any entity, in anything whatsoever. This is called the emptiness of non-entities.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of essential nature,’ it is the absence of any essential nature with respect to anything originating from combinations [of causes and conditions]. That is called the emptiness of essential nature.
“If you ask what is the ‘emptiness of the essential nature of non-entities,’ it [too] is the absence of any essential nature in anything originating from combinations [of causes and conditions]. That is called the emptiness of the essential nature of non-entities.
“Moreover, Śāradvatīputra, entities are empty of entities.[F.11.b] Non-entities are empty of non-entities. Essential nature is empty of essential nature. Extraneous entities are empty of extraneous entities.49
“If you ask what are entities, the term ‘entities’ denotes the five psycho-physical aggregates, which comprise physical forms, feelings, perceptions, formative predispositions, and consciousness. In this regard, entities are empty of entities.
“If you ask in what way non-entities are empty of non-entities, the term ‘non-entities’ denotes unconditioned phenomena. In this regard unconditioned phenomena are empty of unconditioned phenomena. Similarly, non-entities are empty of non-entities.50
“If you ask in what way the essential nature is empty of the essential nature, the essential nature of all phenomena is not created by being known, it is not created by being seen, and it is not created by anything at all. In this way, the essential nature is said to be empty of the essential nature.51
“If you ask in what way extraneous entities are empty of extraneous entities, whether the tathāgatas have appeared or whether the tathāgatas have not appeared, the abiding nature of all things, the expanse of reality, the maturity with respect to all things, the real nature, the incontrovertible real nature, the inalienable real nature, and the finality of existence—all of these continue to abide. Anything that is empty of phenomena extraneous to these attributes may be called an extraneous entity that is empty of extraneous entities.
“Śāradvatīputra! These are all attributes with respect to which a great bodhisattva being should cultivate detachment. One who is without fixation will reach the transcendent perfection of wisdom, and swiftly attain manifestly perfect buddhahood in unsurpassed and genuinely perfect enlightenment.”52
This completes the first chapter from “The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines,” entitled “The Context.”53[B2]
Then, once again, the Blessed One addressed the venerable Śāradvatīputra in the following words, “Śāradvatīputra, if you ask what are the ‘ten powers of the tathāgatas,’ they are as follows:[F.12.a] (1) definitive knowledge that things which are possible are indeed possible;54 (2) definitive knowledge that things which are impossible are indeed impossible; (3) definitive knowledge, through possibilities and causes, of the maturation of past, future, and present actions, and of those who undertake such actions; (4) definitive knowledge of multiple world systems and diverse dispositions; (5) definitive knowledge of the diversity of inclinations and the multiplicity of inclinations that other sentient beings and other individuals have; (6) definitive knowledge of whether the acumen of other sentient beings and other individuals is supreme or not; (7) definitive knowledge of the paths that lead anywhere; (8) definitive knowledge of all the afflicted and purified mental states and their emergence, with respect to the faculties, powers, branches of enlightenment, aspects of liberation, meditative concentrations, meditative stabilities, and formless absorptions; (9) definitive knowledge of the recollection of multiple past abodes, and of the transference of consciousness at the death and birth of all sentient beings; and (10) definitive knowledge that through one’s own extrasensory powers one has actualized, achieved, and maintained in this very lifetime the liberation of mind and the liberation of wisdom in the state that is free from contaminants because all contaminants have ceased, and so one can say, ‘My rebirths have come to an end. I have practiced chastity. I have fulfilled my duties. I will experience no other rebirths apart from this one.’55 Śāradvatīputra, these are called the ten powers of the tathāgatas.
“Śāradvatīputra, if you ask what are the ‘four assurances’ [proclaimed by the tathāgatas], they are as follows:
“ (1) When I claim to have attained genuinely perfect buddhahood, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else should say that I have not attained manifestly perfect buddhahood with respect to these particular phenomena here,[F.12.b] I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned [in the world] in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else!
“ (2) When I claim I am one whose contaminants have ceased, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else should say that these particular contaminants of mine have not ceased, I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned in the world in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else!
“ (3) When I claim to have explained those things which cause obstacles on the path, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else should insist in this respect that even though one might depend on those things, there will be no obstacles and that that would be impossible, I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned in the world in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else![F.13.a]
“ (4) When I claim to have explained the path through which suffering will genuinely cease, having ascertained that śrāvakas will find it conducive to the attainment of sublime emancipation, if some virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else in the world should say in this respect that even if one practices this path, it will not be conducive to emancipation, that suffering will not cease, and that that is impossible, I would correctly disregard that reason for contradicting me, based on their worldly doctrines. By correctly disregarding that reason, I have found happiness and abide therein. To have attained this absence of trepidation is to have attained fearlessness. I claim my exalted place as a great leader. I will rightly roar the lion’s roar in the midst of the assembly! I will turn the wheel of Brahmā which has not previously been turned in the world in conformity with the sacred doctrine by any virtuous ascetic, brāhmin, god, demon, Brahmā, or anyone else! These are called the four assurances.56
“If you ask what are the ‘four kinds of exact knowledge,’ they comprise (1) exact knowledge of meanings, (2) exact knowledge of dharmas, (3) exact knowledge of their language and lexical explanations, and (4) exact knowledge of their eloquent expression.
“If you ask what is ‘great loving kindness,’ it is an action in which the tathāgatas engage on behalf of all sentient beings, treating enemies and friends identically. That is called great loving kindness. If you ask what is ‘great compassion,’ it is unstinting loving kindness toward all sentient beings, when there are actually no sentient beings. That is called great compassion.57
“If you ask what are the ‘eighteen distinct qualities of the buddhas,’ they are as follows: (1) The tathāgatas are without clumsiness; (2) they are not noisy; (3) they are without false memories; (4) they are without differentiating perceptions; (5) they are without uncomposed minds; (6) they are without the indifference that lacks discernment; (7) they do not degenerate in their resolution; (8) they do not degenerate in their perseverance; (9) they do not degenerate in their recollection; (10) they do not degenerate in their meditative stability;[F.13.b] (11) they do not degenerate in their wisdom; (12) they do not degenerate in their liberation, nor in their perception of liberating gnosis; (13) all the activities of their bodies are preceded by gnosis and followed by gnosis; (14) all the activities of their speech are preceded by pristine cognition and followed by gnosis; (15) all the activities of their minds are preceded by gnosis and followed by gnosis; (16) they engage in the perception of gnosis which is unobstructed and unimpeded with respect to the past; (17) they engage in the perception of gnosis which is unobstructed and unimpeded with respect to the future; and (18) they engage in the perception of gnosis which is unobstructed and unimpeded with respect to the present. These are called the eighteen distinct qualities of the buddhas.58
“If you ask what is the ‘understanding of all phenomena,’ it is the partial understanding of selflessness with respect to personal identity59 that śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas acquire with reference to the twelve sense fields. That is called the understanding of all phenomena.
“If you ask what is the ‘understanding of the aspects of the path,’ it is the emancipation from cyclic existence that bodhisattvas acquire through the path of the bodhisattvas, inasmuch as they are not attracted by the vehicles of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, even though they understand the paths of all three vehicles. That is called the understanding of the aspects of the path.
“If you ask what is the ‘understanding of omniscience,’ it is the knowledge that the tathāgatas have, without hesitation, with regard to all things, in all their aspects, throughout all the three times. That is called omniscience.60
“If you ask what are the ‘six transcendent perfections,’ they comprise (1) the transcendent perfection of generosity, (2) the transcendent perfection of ethical discipline, (3) the transcendent perfection of tolerance, (4) the transcendent perfection of perseverance, (5) the transcendent perfection of meditative concentration, and (6) the transcendent perfection of wisdom. These are called the six transcendent perfections.61
“If you ask what are the ‘six extrasensory powers,’ they comprise (1) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of [miraculous] activities, (2) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of divine clairvoyance, (3) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of divine clairaudience,[F.14.a] (4) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of other minds, (5) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of recollection of past lives, and (6) the extrasensory power realizing knowledge of the cessation of contaminants. These are called the six extrasensory powers.62
“If you ask what are the ‘five eyes,’ they comprise (1) the eye of flesh, (2) the eye of divine clairvoyance, (3) the eye of wisdom, (4) the eye of the sacred doctrine, and (5) the eye of the Buddha. These are called the five eyes.63
On the distinctions between the three promulgations, see Jamgon Kongtrul’s concise explanation in TOK Book 5, pp. 145–156. The three essenceless natures, comprising the imaginary, dependent, and consummate natures, which are not discussed in the present sūtra, are analyzed in Asaṅga’s Yogacārabhūmi, F.162. See also Jamgon Kongtrul’s presentation from the Indo-Tibetan perspective in TOK, Book 6, Pt. 2, pp. 563–574.
The setting of the mind on enlightenment (bodhicittotpāda, byang chub sems bskyed pa) for the sake of all sentient beings, which marks the onset of the bodhisattva path and culminates in the actual attainment of buddhahood, distinguishes the compassionate bodhisattva path from that of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas who are both preoccupied with their own emancipation from cyclic existence. See Dayal (1932): 50–79, Williams (1989): 197–204, and Padmakara Translation Group (1994): 218–234. The śrāvakas are pious attendants who listen to the teachings that the buddhas taught by word of mouth, and place great emphasis on destroying the mistaken belief in personal identity by overcoming all afflicted mental states. In the course of determining their own emancipation from cyclic existence, they may achieve in succession the fruit of entering the stream to nirvāṇa, the fruit of being tied to only one more rebirth, the fruit of being no longer subject to rebirth, and the fruit of arhatship. By contrast, the pratyekabuddhas are hermit buddhas who pursue their path to individual enlightenment in solitude or in small groups, without relying on a teacher and without communicating their understanding to others. Following a natural predisposition for meditation through which they comprehend the twelve links of dependent origination in forward and reverse order, they are said to surpass the śrāvakas in the sense that they realize the emptiness of external phenomena, composed of atomic particles, in addition to realising the emptiness of personal identity. However, unlike bodhisattvas, they fail to realize that the internal phenomena of consciousness are also without inherent existence. Only the bodhisattvas resolve to attain manifestly perfect buddhahood or omniscience, in order to benefit all sentient beings.
This evidence is presented in Falk (2011): 13–23, and in Falk and Karashima (2012): 19–61. Earlier significant contributions to research on birch-bark Kharoṣṭhī manuscripts include Saloman (2000), Nasim Khan, M. and M. Sohail Khan, 2004 (2006): 9–15, and Strauch (2007–08).
Lokakṣema’s Chinese version of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines has been translated into English and annotated in Karashima (2011).
In addition to Conze’s detailed synopsis (1960: 31–91), all twenty-three texts preserved in the shes phyin division of the Kangyur are conveniently summarized in Brunnholzl (2010): 34–35.
Gareth Sparham, trans., The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines, Toh 8 (2024).
See Padmakara Translation Group, trans., The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 9), 2023.
See Sparham, trans., The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines, Toh 10 (84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2022).
See Kawa Paltsek (ka ba dpal brtsegs) and Namkhai Nyingpo (nam mkha’i snying po), Pho brang stod thang ldan dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag, Toh 4364, vol. jo, f. 295a.4.
Such statements, expressed in the context of the sūtras of the second turning, accord with the profound view of fruitional Buddhist teachings, such as the Great Perfection (rdzogs pa chen po), on which see Dudjom Rinpoche (1991): 896–910.
These fields (kṣetra, zhing khams) include pure buddhafields and ostensibly impure fields which buddhas are engaged in refining. See also Williams (1989): 224–228.
In this text, we have opted to translate the epithet bhagavat (bcom ldan ’das) as “the Blessed One” when it stands alone in the narrative, and as “Lord” when found in the terms “Reverend Lord” (bhadantabhagavat, btsun pa bcom ldan ’das) and “Lord Buddha” (bhagavanbuddha, sangs rgyas bcom ldan ’das).
A clear interpretation of the corresponding introductory paragraph in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines (Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā) can be found in Haribhadra’s Mirror Commentary on the Ornament of Clear Realization (Abhisamayālaṃkārālokā). See Sparham (2006): I, 171–181.
The accomplishment of dhāraṇī is acquired through the various dhāraṇīs which are enumerated in Dutt (1934): 212–213; also Conze (1975): 160–162. On the implications and importance of dhāraṇī for the oral transmission of Buddhist teachings, see Ronald Davidson’s “Studies in Dhāraṇī Literature I: Revisiting the Meaning of the Term Dhāraṇī.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 37 no. 2 (April 2009): 97–147. The one hundred and eleven meditative stabilities are listed below, 12.12. The dhāraṇī gateways and gateways of meditative stability are also discussed in Lamotte: The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom, vol. IV, pp. 1522–1542.
Although all six extrasensory powers are enumerated below, 2.13, the distinction is that the first five extrasensory powers are attainable by śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and even by non-Buddhists, whereas the sixth is indicative of the termination of all rebirth in cyclic existence and can therefore be attained only by manifestly perfect buddhas.
Various aspects of the knowledge that engages in subtlety (sūkṣmapraveśajñāna, phra ba la ’jug pa’i mkhyen pa) of conduct and so forth are listed in The Extensive Exegesis of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines, Twenty-five Thousand Lines, and Eighteen Thousand Lines (Śatasahāsrikāpañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāṣṭādaśasāhasrikāprajnāpāramitābṛhaṭṭīkā), which is attributed to either Dāṃstrasena or Vasubandhu. See Sparham (2022): 1.123.
The names given in the following list correspond to Dutt (1934): 5 and Kimura I: 1. We have not followed the variants found in Konow’s reconstruction (1941): 93–94.
Grahadatta (gzas byin) occurs in F. 2a line 5 and KPD (31: 532). The Sanskrit is omitted in Konow’s reconstruction (1941: 93). Note, however, that this name does not occur in The Transcendent Perfection in Eighteen Thousand Lines, (KPD 29: 5) which reads Guhagupta (phug sbas), nor is it found in The Transcendent Perfection in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (KPD 26: 6, and Dutt 1934: 5) or in The Transcendent Perfection in One Hundred Thousand Lines (KPD 14: 6), both of which read Śubhagupta (skyob sbed).
This key term is repeated for emphasis in the Tibetan, as is sometimes the case when a topic is flagged up for discussion in philosophical texts or works on logic.
The terms bodhisattva (“enlightened being”) and mahāsattva (“great being”) occur throughout the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts most frequently in the singular, although we have adopted the convention of rendering them consistently in the plural in order to circumvent the issues of gender which would otherwise arise in an English translation. For a useful synopsis of the bodhisattva ideal, see Williams (1989): 49–54.
Cf. Kimura I: 29–30 and Conze (1975): 45–47, where a narrower classification of phenomena is introduced without the detailed exposition that will follow in the present text.
See Konow (1941): 13. Jamgon Kongtrul’s synopsis of the twelve sense fields is contained in TOK Book 6, Pt. 2: 537–540.
Konow (1941): 13–14. On the eighteen sensory elements, see Jamgon Kongtrul, TOK Book 6, Pt. 2: 531–537.
This passage listing the four noble truths, the twelve links of dependent origination, and the thirty-seven aspects of enlightenment is also translated in Konow (1941): 14–17, with reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 96–97. The four noble truths, specifically, are the focus of the first turning of the doctrinal wheel. For an outline of the relevant Pāli and Sanskrit sources, see Dayal (1932): 156–160.
Jamgon Kongtrul offers an extensive explanation of the twelve links of dependent origination from the Indo-Tibetan perspective in TOK Book 6, Pt. 2: 575–611.
See also the translation of this listing of the three gateways to liberation in Konow (1941): 17–18, and the reconstructed Sanskrit on p. 97.
This listing of the four meditative concentrations, the four immeasurable aspirations, and the four formless absorptions is also translated in Konow (1941):18–19, with reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 97–98. For Pāli and Sanskrit sources, see Dayal (1932): 225–231. The four meditative concentrations and their fruits are specifically examined in Jamgon Kongtrul, TOK Book 6, Pt. 2: 427–436.
This listing of the eight aspects of liberation, the nine serial steps of meditative absorption, and the nine contemplations of impurity is also translated in Konow (1941): 19–23, with Sanskrit reconstruction on pp. 98–99. On the eight aspects of liberation, see also Sparham (2012 IV): 68–69.
The nine serial steps of meditative absorption are summarized in Jamgon Kongtrul, TOK Book 6, Pt. 2: 428–429.
This listing of the ten recollections and the six aspects of perception is also translated in Konow (1941): 23–24, with reconstructed Sanskrit on p. 99. The ten recollections are examined in Bodhi (1993): 333–336.
The foregoing eleven aspects of knowledge (ekadaśajñāna, shes pa bcu gcig), which are all defined individually here, are also translated in Konow (1941): 24–26, with reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 99–100.
This passage on the gradation of the three degrees of the five faculties which unrealized beings, trainee bodhisattvas, and buddhas respectively have, and on the three degress of meditative stability, is also translated in Konow (1941): 26–28, with reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 100–101.
This listing of the eight sense fields of mastery and the ten total consummations of the elements is also translated in Konow (1941: 28–30, with reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 101–102. Cf. Sparham (2012 IV): 70–76. Among them, as cited in Negi (1993-2005): 5395. the eight sense fields of mastery originate through engagement with the aforementioned eight aspects of liberation (vimokṣapraveśsikānyabhibhvāyatanāni, zil gyis gnon pa’i skye mched rnams ni rnam par thar pa ’jug pa las byung ba can yin la). They are the basis for the control and transcendence of the world system of desire. See Nāṇamoli (1979): 866.
This distinction between lesser and greater external forms is made not on the basis of physical size but with reference to their impact on consciousness. See Bodhi (1993): 153. Some sources (e.g., Dorje 1987: 374) more explicitly distinguish greater and lesser external forms on the basis of sentience and non-sentience.
The last two sense fields of mastery, as given here, repeat two of the eight aspects of liberation (see above, 1.33). More generally, however, this listing makes a fourfold distinction between those who perceive inner form observing greater and lesser external forms, and those who perceive inner formlessness observing greater and lesser external forms. Cf. Negi (1993-2005): 5395–5397.
For a detailed presentation of the ten total consummations of the elements and their impact in the context of meditative concentration, see Nāṇamoli (1979): 122–184.
For variant listings and commentary on the eighteen aspects of emptiness that follow, see Konow (1941): 30–34, and the reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 102–104. Cf. also the more detailed explanations in Lamotte: The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom, vol. IV, pp. 1669–1767. Sparham (2006 I), pp. 107–110, lists twenty aspects of emptiness. With regard to the last in our list—the emptiness of the essential nature of non-entities (abhāvasvabhāvaśūnyatā, dngos po med pa’i ngo bo nyid stong pa nyid)—here we have followed Konow (1941), p. 30, in reading this compound as a genitive (tatpuruṣa). The Tibetan appears to do the same. This is at variance with Lamotte, The Treatise of the Great Virtue of Wisdom, vol. IV, pp. 1765–1767, who clearly reads the compound as a co-ordinative (dvandva): “emptiness of non-existence and existence itself.”
There are variant readings for this passage concerning entities, non-entities, essential nature, and extraneous entities to be found in the three longer versions of the sūtra, on which see Konow (1941): 35–37.
Since the term “entities” (bhāva, dngos po) specifically denotes the conditioned phenomena of the psycho-physical aggregates, this would seem to preclude Lamotte’s translation (op. cit. p. 1762) of dngos po as “existence,” although “existents” could be an acceptable alternative. Similarly, the term “non-entities” (abhāva, dngos po med pa) denotes unconditioned phenomena and is therefore incompatible with Lamotte’s “non-existence.”
Here we have opted to translate svabhāva (ngo bo nyid) as “essential nature” and in other contexts as “inherent existence,” rather than as “self-existence” (Konow 1941: 30) or as “existence in itself” (Lamotte, op. cit. p. 1762).
The attributes listed here in this first chapter are the causal attributes cultivated by bodhisattvas, in contrast to the fruitional attributes possessed by buddhas, which are outlined below in the second chapter.
The listing of the ten powers of the tathāgatas is analyzed in Konow (1941), pp. 37–39, with reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 105–106. The full explanation of these powers derives from the passage at 2.257–2.386 in The Teaching on the Great Compassion of the Tathāgata (Tathāgatamahākaruṇānirdeśa, Toh 147, also known as The Sūtra of Dhāraṇīśvararāja, Dhāraṇīśvararājasūtra), in which the ten powers are described as the first ten of thirty-two actions of a tathāgata. Cf. also Dayal (1932): 20; and Sparham (2012 IV): 80.
This listing of the four assurances is translated and analyzed in Konow (1941): 39–40, with reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 106–107. The full explanation of the assurances derives from the passage at 2.387–2.424 in The Teaching on the Great Compassion of the Tathāgata (Tathāgatamahākaruṇānirdeśa, Toh 147) in which the four assurances are described as the eleventh to fourteenth of thirty-two actions of a tathāgata. See also Dayal (1932): 20–21; and Sparham (2012 IV): 80–81.
On the Pali and Sanskrit sources relevant for great loving kindness and great compassion, see Dayal (1932): 227–228 and 178–181 respectively. The training in the relevant meditations is presented in Padmakara Translation Group (1994): 198–213.
See the analysis of the eighteen distinct qualities of the buddhas in Konow (1941): 41–44, which discusses the etymology of āveṇika and compares alternative listings; also Dayal (1932): 21–23 and Sparham (2012 IV): 82.
These are the three theoretical understandings of the goal to be realized, which, as mentioned above, i.3, constitute the first three sections of the eightfold progression outlined in the Ornament of Clear Realization. The present sūtra explicitly associates them with the śrāvakas, bodhisattvas and buddhas respectively. See also Konow (1941): 44, and the reconstructed Sanskrit on p. 107.
The listings of the six transcendent perfections, and the six extrasensory powers and five eyes that follow, are also translated and discussed in Konow (1941): 44–48. In particular, on Sanskrit sources relevant to the six transcendent perfections, which are central to the present sūtra, see Dayal (1932): 165–269, and on their cultivation, Padmakara Translation Group (1994): 234–261.
The first five extrasensory powers, on which see above, 1.3 and 1.11, may be acquired by śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, whereas the last may only be acquired by bodhisattvas who attain manifestly perfect buddhahood. For a more detailed explanation, see below, 10.40–10.47; also Lamotte, The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom, vol. IV, pp. 1486–1494.
This following list of the major physical marks that identify the buddha body of emanation actually comprises thirty-three major marks. A more standardized listing of the thirty-two major marks can be found in chapter 63 of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra), KPD 25: 105–111; in chapter 62 of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Pañcaviṃśatīsāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra, Toh 9, 62.76 ff., see Padmakara Translation Group, 2023), and Kimura (2006) VI–VIII, p. 61; and in chapter 73 of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra, Toh 10, 73.89 ff., see Sparham, 2022). The lists presented in the two longer versions are identical, while the wording of the last mentioned varies slightly although the meaning corresponds. This standard list of thirty-two is reinterated but for a few almost insignificant differences in the Abhisamayālaṃkāra and its Spuṭārtha commentary, pp. 86–87, and Sparham (2012 IV): 84–90 and 254–256). However, the present listing of thirty-three is markedly different in that it includes the eyeballs, aureole, and moonlike face (29–31), for which the aforementioned sources substitute the lion-like torso (siṃhapūrvārdhakāyatā) and even teeth (samadantatā). There are also a few discrepancies in the order in which the marks appear in our text. Lists also appear in the Lalitavistara (Toh 95, 7.99 and 26.147–26.175, see Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2013), Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā (Toh 62, 1.356 ff., see Vienna Buddhist Translation Studies Group, 2021), Mahāyānopadeśa (Toh 169), Mahāvastu, and Ratnagotravibhāga. For a comparative analysis of the early Indic sources, see also Konow (1941): 48–57, and the reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 108–10. The meritorious reasons underlying each of the Buddha’s thirty-two major marks are given in the Lalitavistara (26.145–173, see above), and in the Mahāyānopadeśa (Degé Kangyur, vol. 59, folios 297a et seq.). They are also discussed in Lamotte: The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom, vol. IV, pp. 1568–1570.
dper na shing bal gyi ’da’ ba’am/ ras bal gyi ’da’ ba lta bu. This simile is a recurring, modular phrase in the canonical literature, the Sanskrit being in such forms as tad yathā tūlapicur vā karpāsapicur vā (Divyāvadāna 210.14-15) or tūlapindhur vā karpasapindhur vā (Śrāvakabhūmi 174.kha.462); similar examples are found in Pali. See also glossary entries.
The aureole is also mentioned as one of the eighty minor marks, and its omission here would serve to restore the list to thirty-two.
For a detailed analysis of this listing of the minor marks in relation to other Indic sources, see Konow (1941): 57–81, and the reconstructed Sanskrit on pp. 110–112. In fact only seventy-eight minor marks are listed here, in contrast to the standard listings of eighty, which are found in chapter 63 of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra), KPD 25: 111–117; in chapter 62 of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Pañcaviṃśatīsāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra, Toh 9, 62.79, see Padmakara Translation Group, 2023) and Kimura (2006) VI–VIII, pp. 64ff., and in chapter 73 of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra, Toh 10, 73.93, see Sparham, 2022). The lists presented in the two longer versions are identical, while the wording of the last mentioned varies slightly, albeit without significant differences in meaning. That standard list of eighty is largely reinterated in the Abhisamayālaṃkāra and its Spuṭārtha commentary, pp. 89–90 (see also Sparham (2012 IV): 90–96 and 257–262; Conze (1975): 661–664; and Tsepak Rigdzin (1986): 165–166). The only differences, other than in the order, between the list given in those three sūtra recensions and the Abhisamayālaṃkāra is that the latter combines the purity and cleanliness of the body (21 and 23) in a single mark (21) while adding the perfection of the body (sku rnam par dgu pa, 23), and it also subsitutes the thick and long earlobes (68) with long and extended arms. However, our present text contains many more divergent readings. In fact, twenty-six items of the standard list are missing and several others appear to be combined or else only tentatively identified. About half of them do correspond to the standard Sphuṭārtha listing, although they are frequently presented in a different order. The Sanskrit terms given in parenthesis generally follow the terminology of The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha, although Konow’s reconstructions have also been included when the original is unlocatable. This passage may also be compared to that found in Conze (1975): 586–587, which struggles to present a clear enumeration of eighty. The following notes 76–146, which all refer to discrepancies in the various listings of the minor marks, will be of interest to specialists rather than the general reader.
This is listed as number 1 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha.
This is numbered 30 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and 31 in the Sphuṭārtha listing.
This term is reconstructed in Konow (1941): 59. We have tentatively identified it with pṛthucārumaṇḍalagātratā (sku che zhing mdzes pa), numbered 25 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and in the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This is numbered 21 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This is numbered 22 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This term is probably equivalent to sku gzhon sha can, numbered 28 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This term, reconstructed in Konow (1941): 59–60, may possibly be equivalent to mṛṣṭagātratā (shin tu sbyangs pa, sku byi dor byas pa), which is numbered 19 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
Again, this term has been reconstructed in Konow (1941): 60. It may possibly be equivalent to anupūrvagātratā (sku rim gyis gzhol ba), which is numbered 20 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings; or else to adīnagātratā (sku zhum pa med pa, 29).
Here the text actually reads, “Their fingers and toes are long and tapering” (dīrghānupūrvāṅgulitā, sor mo rnams ring ba dang byin gyis phra ba dag), but this is a repetition of item 11, and, as Konow (1941): 60 points out, the reading given in translation is preferable, corresponding to item 5 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This term is numbered 4 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This term is numbered 6 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This term is numbered 7 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and Sphuṭārtha listings.
This term is numbered 9 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This is equivalent to item 18 (sku shin tu legs pa) in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings. Konow (1941): 60 alternatively suggests adīnagātratā (sku zhum pa med pa, 29).
This term is equivalent to item 19 (“well-refined”, sku shin tu sbyangs pa, sku byi dor byas pa) in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings. Konow (1941): 60 alternatively suggests equivalence with suvibhaktāṅgapratyaṅgatā (yan lag nyin lag spa bar mdzes pa, 32).
This is equivalent to item 23 (sku shin tu rnam par dag pa) in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines. Konow (1941): 60 reconstructs the Sanskrit more literally as viśuddhāyatanatā.
Here the Sanskrit is reconstructed in Konow (1941): 60, but this item appears out of place in a list of physical characteristics.
This term is numbered 41 (kun spyod pa shin tu gtsang ba) in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
Konow (1941): 61 and 65 suggests that “splendor” may tentatively be associated with the last (80th) of the minor marks.
This term is equivalent to item 40 (kun nas mdzes pa) in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listing (here through 105 it says “listing” not “listings”; the latter resumes at 106).
This term is numbered 47 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listing.
This term is numbered 48 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listing.
This term is numbered 52 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listing
This term is numbered 38 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listing.
This term may be equivalent to 33 (phyal zlum pa, “well rounded abdomen”) in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and 34 in the Sphuṭārtha listing.
This term is numbered 39 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This term is numbered 30 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings. Konow (1941): 61 reconstructs the Sanskrit as citapāṇipādatā.
Here the Sanskrit is reconstructed according to Konow (1941): 61, who suggests equivalence with aviṣamapādatā (zhabs mi mnyam pa med pa, item 10 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings).
This term is numbered 43 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
This is probably equivalent to gambhīrapāṇilekhatā (phyag gi ri mo zab pa), item 45 in The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines and the Sphuṭārtha listings.
Also translated here as “self.”
Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.
Name of a bodhisattva.
Eighth god realm of form, meaning “immeasurable virtue.”
Fifth god realm of form, meaning “immeasurable radiance.”
Indian commentator (fl. late fourth–early fifth centuries).
Mauryan emperor (304–232 ʙᴄᴇ).
Fifty-seventh of the eighty minor marks.
Fifty-eighth of the eighty minor marks.
Literally, “unwrinkled body;” fifty-ninth of the eighty minor marks.
Sixth god realm of form, meaning “luminosity.”
Eighth of the eight sense fields of mastery. See also n.46.
Seventh of the eight sense fields of mastery. See also n.46.
Name of the 108th meditative stability.
A synonym for emptiness, and the expanse of reality (dharmadhātu).
A synonym for emptiness, and the expanse of reality (dharmadhātu).
Name of the seventy-third meditative stability.
Also translated here as “sanctuary,” and “resting place.”
In Buddhist logic, the term “distinguishing counterpart” (vyāvṛtti, ldog pa) denotes a given phenomenon that conceptually appears to be the opposite of a phenomenon of a dissimilar class but is not actually existent, such as the idea of a specific form that appears in conceptual thought.
Name of the ninety-third meditative stability.
Third of the four aspects of the path of preparation.
Also translated here as “tolerance.”
The bodhisattvas’ realization that all phenomena are unproduced and empty. It sustains them on the difficult path of benefiting all beings so that they do not succumb to the goal of personal liberation. Different sources link this realization to the first or eighth bodhisattva level (bhūmi).
Also translated here as “favored.”
Name of the seventy-second meditative stability.
The acquisition of vows through direct insight into the nature of reality rather than through formal ceremony.
Eleventh of the twelve links of dependent origination.
Name of the tenth meditative stability.
See “afflicted mental state.”
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements known as the afflicted mental states, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure. Included among them are the primary afflictions of fundamental ignorance, attachment, aversion, pride, doubt, and twenty subsidiary afflictions.
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa khri pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo, Daśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitānāmamahāyānasūtra. Toh 11, Degé Kangyur, vols. 31–32 (shes phyin, ga), ff. 1b–91a; and nga, ff. 92b–397a.
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa khri pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo, Daśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitānāmamahāyānasūtra. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–2009, vol. 31, pp. 530–763 and vol. 32, pp. 3–763.
Dutt, Nalinaksha. Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā, edition of the recast Sanskrit manuscript (Part One). Calcutta Oriental Series, No. 28. London: Luzac & Co., 1934.
Kimura, Takayasu. Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā, edition of the recast Sanskrit manuscript (Parts One–Eight). Part One (2007), Parts Two–Three (1986), Part Four (1990), Part Five (1992), and Parts Six–Eight (2006). Tokyo: Sankibo Busshorin Publishing Co. Ltd., 1986–2007.
klu’i rgyal po rgya mtshos zhus pa’i mdo (Sāgaranāgarājaparipṛcchāsūtra) [The Questions of Nāga King Sāgara (1)]. Toh 153. Degé Kangyur vol. 58 (mdo sde, pha, fol. 116a–198a); also KPD 58: 303–491. English translation in Dharmachakra Translation Committee (2021).
dkon mchog sprin gyi mdo (Ratnameghasūtra) [The Jewel Cloud]. Toh 231. Degé Kangyur vol. 64 (mdo sde, va, fol. 1b–112b); also KPD 64: 3–313. English translation in Dharmachakra Translation Committee (2019).
dkon brtsegs/ dkon mchog brtsegs pa’i mdo (Ratnakūṭa). The “Heap of Jewels” section of the Kangyur comprising Toh 45–93, Degé Kangyur vols. 39–44. Also KPD: 39–44.
rgya cher rol pa (Lalitavistarasūtra) [The Play in Full]. Toh 95, Degé Kangyur vol. 46 (mdo sde, kha, fol. 1b–216b); also KPD 46: 3–527. English translation in Dharmachakra Translation Committee (2013).
chos yang dag par sdud pa’i mdo (Dharmasaṃgītisūtra). Toh 238, Degé Kangyur vol. 65 (mdo sde, zha, fol. 1b–99b); also KPD 65: 3–250. English translation in Tibetan Classics Translators Guild of New York (2024).
de bzhin gshegs pa’i snying rje chen po nges par bstan pa’i mdo (Tathāgatamahākaruṇānirdeśasūtra) [The Teaching on the Great Compassion of the Tathāgata]. Toh 147, Degé Kangyur, vol. 57 (mdo sde, pa, fol. 142a–242b); also KPD 57: 377–636. English translation in Burchardi (2020).
phal po che’i mdo (sangs rgyas phal po che shin tu rgyas pa chen po’i mdo) (Avataṃsakasūtra Buddhāvataṃsakamahāvaipulyasūtra) [The Ornaments of the Buddhas]. Toh 44, Degé Kangyur vols. 35–38 (phal chen, vols. ka– a); also KPD 35–38. Translated Cleary (1984).
tshangs pa’i dra ba’i mdo (Brahmajālasūtra) [Sūtra of the Net of Brahmā]. Toh 352, Degé Kangyur vol. 76 (mdo sde, aḥ), fol. 70b–86a; also KPD76: 205–249. Translated from the Pali version in Bodhi (1978).
gzungs kyi dbang phyug rgyal po’i mdo (Dhāraṇīśvararājesūtra) [Sūtra of Dhāraṇīśvararāja]. An alternative title for Tathāgatamahākaruṇānirdeśasūtra. Toh 147, q.v. English translation in Burchardi (2020).
theg pa chen po’i man ngag gi mdo (Mahāyānopadeśa). Toh 169, Degé Kangyur vol. 59 (mdo sde, ba), fol. 259–307.
yul ’khor skyong gi zhus pa’i mdo (Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā) [The Questions of Rāṣṭrapāla]. Toh 62, Degé Kangyur, vol. 42 (dkon brtsegs, nga), folios 227.a–257.a. English translation in Vienna Buddhist Translation Studies Group (2021).
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa khri brgyad stong pa (Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā) [Sūtra of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines]. Toh 10, Degé Kangyur vols. 29–31 (shes phyin, khri brgyad, ka), f. 1b–ga, f. 206a; also KPD 29: p. 3–31: 495. Translated and edited in Conze (1975) and in Sparham (2022).
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa (Aṣṭasāhasarikāprajñāpāramitā) [Sūtra of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines]. Toh 12, Degé Kangyur vol. 33 (shes phyin, brgyad stong, ka), fol. 1b–286a; also KPD 33. Translated in Conze (1973).
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag brgya pa (Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā) [Sūtra of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines]. Toh 8. Degé Kangyur vols. 14–25 (shes phyin, ’bum, ka), f. 1b–a, f. 395a; also KPD 14–25. English translation in Sparham 2024.
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā) [Sūtra of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines]. Toh 9, Degé Kangyur vols. 26–28 (shes phyin, nyi khri, ka), f. 1b–ga, f. 381a; also KPD 26–28. Annotated Sanskrit edition of the recast manuscript in Dutt (1934) and Kimura (1971–2009). Partially translated in Conze (1975) and fully translated in Padmakara Translation Group (2023).
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa rdo rje gcod pa’i mdo (Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra) [Sūtra of the Adamantine Cutter [in Three Hundred Lines]. Toh 16, Degé Kangyur vol. 34 (shes phyin, ka), f. 121a–132b; also KPD 34: 327–357. Translated in Red Pine (2001).
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa (Prajñāpāramitāsañcayagāthā) [Verse Summation of the Transcendental Perfection of Wisdom]. Toh 13, Degé Kangyur vol. 34 (shes phyin, ka), f. 1b–19b; also KPD 34: 3–44. Translated in Conze (1973).
shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i snying po (Prajñāpāramitāhṛdayasūtra) [Heart Sūtra of the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom]. Toh 21, Degé Kangyur vol. 34 (shes phyin, ka), f. 144b–146a; also KPD 34, pp. 402–405. Translated in Red Pine (2004) and in Dharmachakra Translation Committee (2022).
Asaṅga. chos mngon pa kun las btus pa (Abhidharmasamuccaya) [The Compendium of Abhidharma]. Toh 4049. Degé Tengyur vol. 236 (sems tsam, ri), fol. 44b–120a; also TPD 76: 116–313. Translated from French in Boin-Webb (2001).
rnal ’byor spyod pa’i sa’i dngos gzhi (Yogacaryābhūmivastu). Toh 4035–4037, Degé Tengyur vols. 229–231 (sems tsam, tshi–vi). This is the first of the five parts of the Yogacaryā Level, comprising three texts: Yogacaryābhūmi (Toh 4035) and its sub-sections: Śrāvakabhūmi (Toh 4036) and Bodhisattvabhūmi (Toh 4037).
Haribhadra. mngon rtogs rgyan gyi snang ba (Abhisamayalaṃkārāloka) [Light for the Ornament of Emergent Realization]. Toh 3791, Degé Tengyur vol. 85 (shes phyin, cha), f. 1b–341a; also TPD 51: 891–1728. Translated in Sparham (2006–2012).
Kalyāṇamitra. ’dul bag zhi rgya cher ’grel pa (Vinayavastuṭīkā) [Great Commentary on the Chapters on Monastic Discipline]. Toh 4113, Degé Tengyur vol. 258 (’dul ba, tsu), f. 177a–326a; also TPD 87: 481–883.
Maitreya. [shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos] mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan (Abhisamayālaṃkāra-[nāma-prajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstrakārikā]) [Ornament of Clear Realization]. Toh 3786, Degé Tengyur vol. 80 (shes phyin, ka), fol. 1b–13a; also TPD 49: 3–30. Translated in Conze (1954) and Thrangu (2004).
[theg pa chen po] mdo sde’i rgyan zhes bya ba’i tshig le’ur byas pa ([Mahāyāna]sūtrālaṃkārakārikā) [Ornament of the Sūtras of the Great Vehicle]. Toh 4020, Degé Tengyur vol. 225 (sems tsam, phi), f. 1b–39a; also TPD 70: 805–890 Translated in Jamspal et al. (2004).
theg pa chen po rgyud bla ma’i bstan bcos (Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra) [Ultimate Continuum of the Great Vehicle]. Toh 4024, Degé Tengyur vol. 225 (sems tsam, phi), f. 54b–73a; also TPD 70: 935–979. Translated in Holmes, Kenneth and Katia Holmes. The Changeless Nature. Eskdalemuir: Karma Drubgyud Drajay Ling, 1985. See also Takasaki, Jikido. A Study on the Ratnagotravibhāga (Uttaratantra). SOR XXXIII. Roma: ISMEO, 1966.
Ratnākāraśānti. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa’i dka’ ’grel snying po mchog (Aṣṭasāhasarikāprajñāpāramitāpañjikāsārottama). Toh 3803, Degé Tengyur, vol. 89 (shes phyin, tha), f. 1b–230a; also TPD 53: 711–1317.
Vasubandhu. chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi bshad pa (Abhidharmakośabhāṣya). Toh 4090, Degé Tengyur vol. 242 (mngon pa, ku), fol. 26b–258a; also TPD 79: 65–630. Translated from the French in Pruden (1988–1990).
chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi tshig le’ur byas pa (Abhidharmakośakārikā). Toh 4089, Degé Tengyur vol. 242 (mngon pa, ku), fol. 1b–25a; also TPD 79: 3–59. Translated from the French in Pruden (1988–1990).
Vasubandhu/Dāṃṣṭrasena. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa ’bum pa dang nyi khri lnga stong pa dang khri brgyad stong pa’i rgya cher bshad pa (Śatasahāsrikāpañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāṣṭādaśasāhasrikāprajnā-pāramitābṛhaṭṭīkā) [The Long Explanation of the Noble Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand, Twenty-Five Thousand, and Eighteen Thousand Lines]. Toh 3808, Degé Tengyur vol. 93 (shes phyin, pha), fol. 1b–292b; also TPD 55: 645–1376. English translation in Sparham (2022).
Vimuktisena. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi ’grel pa (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitopdeśaśāstrābhisamayālaṃkāravṛtti) [Commentary on the Ornament of Clear Realization: A Treatise of Instruction on the Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines]. Toh 3787, Degé Tengyur, vol. 80 (shes phyin, ka), f. 14b–212a); also TPD 49: 33–530. Translated in Sparham (2006–2012).
Jamgön Kongtrül (’jam mgon kong sprul). shes bya kun khyab mdzod [The Treasury of Knowledge]. Root verses contained in three-volume publication. Beijing: Mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1982; Boudhnath: Padma Karpo Translation Committee edition, 2000 (photographic reproduction of the original four-volume Palpung xylograph, 1844). Translated, along with the auto-commentary, by the Kalu Rinpoche Translation Group in The Treasury of Knowledge series (TOK). Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 1995 to 2012. Mentioned here are Kalu Rinpoche Translation Group 1995 (Book 1) and 1998 (Book 5); Ngawang Zangpo 2010 (Books 2, 3, and 4); Callahan 2007 (Book 6, Part 3); and Dorje 2012 (Book 6 Parts 1-2).
Kawa Paltsek (ka ba dpal brtsegs) and Namkhai Nyingpo (nam mkha’i snying po). ldan dkar ma (pho brang stod thang ldan dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur vol. 308 (sna tshogs, jo), f. 294b–310a; also TPD 116: 786–827.
Nordrang Orgyan (nor brang o rgyan). chos rnam kun btus. 3 vols. Beijing: Krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2008.
Situ Paṇchen (si tu paṇ chen) or Situ Chökyi Jungné (si tu chos kyi ’byung gnas). sde dge’i bka’ ’gyur dkar chags. Degé Kangyur, vol. 103 (dkar chags, lak+S+mI and shrI), Toh 4568; also Chengdu: Sichuan Mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1989.
Various, bye brag tu rtogs par byed pa (Mahāvyutpatti). Toh 4346, Degé Tengyur vol. 306 (sna tshogs, co), f. 1b–131a; also TPD 115: 3–254. Sakaki, Ryozaburo, ed. (1916–25); reprint, 1965.
Zhang Yisun et al. bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo. 3 vols. Subsequently reprinted in 2 vols. and 1 vol. Beijing: Mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1985. Translated in Nyima and Dorje 2001 (vol. 1).
Apte, Vaman Shivram. The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. 3rd edition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Bodhi, Bhikkhu, trans. The Sūtra on the All-Embracing Net of Views. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1978.
Boin-Webb, Sara, trans. Abhidharmasamuccaya: The Compendium of the Higher Teaching (Philosophy). By Asanga. From the French translation by Walpola Rahula. Fremont, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 2001.
Brunnholzl, Karl. Gone Beyond (Volume One): The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, The Ornament of Clear Realization, and Its Commentaries in the Tibetan Kagyu Tradition. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications, 2010.
Burchardi, Anne, trans. The Teaching on the Great Compassion of the Tathāgata (Tathāgatamahākaruṇānirdeśa, Toh 147). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2020.
Callahan, Elizabeth, trans. The Treasury of Knowledge (Book Six, Part Three): Frameworks of Buddhist Philosophy. By Jamgön Kongtrul. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2007.
Cleary, Thomas, trans. The Flower Ornament Scripture. Boston and London: Shambhala, 1984.
Conze, Edward, trans. (1954). Abhisamayālaṅkāra. SOR 6. Rome: ISMEO.
Conze, Edward (1960) The Prajñāpāramitā Literature. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
Conze, Edward, trans. (1973). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary. Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation.
Conze, Edward (1973) Materials for a Dictionary of The Prajñāpāramitā Literature. Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation.
Conze, Edward, trans. (1975). The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Davidson, Ronald. “Studies in Dhāraṇī Literature I: Revisiting the Meaning of the Term Dhāraṇī.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 37, no. 2 (April 2009): 97–147.
Dayal, Har. The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1932. Reprinted Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970.
Dharmachakra Translation Committee, trans. (2013). The Play in Full (Lalitavistara). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Dharmachakra Translation Committee, trans. (2019). The Jewel Cloud (Ratnamegha, Toh 231). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Dharmachakra Translation Committee, trans. (2021). The Questions of Nāga King Sāgara (1) (Sāgaranāgarājaparipṛcchā, Toh 153). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Dharmachakra Translation Committee, trans. (2022). The Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom, the Blessed Mother (Bhagavatīprajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, Toh 21). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
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Dorje, Gyurme, trans. (2012). Indo-Tibetan Classical Learning and Buddhist Phenomenology. By Jamgön Kongtrul. Boston: Snow Lion.
Dudjom Rinpoche. The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History. 2 vols. Translated by Gyurme Dorje with Matthew Kapstein. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1991.
Edgerton, Franklin. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. 2 vols. New Haven: Yale University Press,1953.
Falk, Harry (2011) “The ‘Split’ Collection of Kharoṣṭhī texts.” ARIRIAB 14 (2011): 13-23.
Falk, Harry (2012). In collaboration with Seishi Karashima, “A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra- Parivarta 1 (Texts from the Split Collection 1),” ARIRIAB 15 (2012), 19–61.
Hikata, Ryfishé. “An Introductory Essay on Prajñāpāramitā Literature”, in Suvikrāntavikāamiparipṛcchā Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra. Fufuoka: Kyūshū University, 1958, pp. ix–lxxxiii.
Jamspal, Lobzang et al., trans. The Universal Vehicle Discourse Literature. New York: American Institute of Buddhist Studies at Columbia University, 2004.
Jamieson, R.Craig. The Perfection of Wisdom. New York: Penguin Viking, 2000.
Jones, J.J. trans. The Mahāvastu (3 vols.) in Sacred Books of the Buddhists. London: Luzac & Co., 1949–56.
Kalu Rinpoche Translation Group, trans. (1995). The Treasury of Knowledge (Book One): Myriad Worlds. By Jamgön Kongtrul. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications.
Kalu Rinpoche Translation Group, trans. (1998). The Treasury of Knowledge (Book Five): Buddhist Ethics. By Jamgön Kongtrul. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications.
Karashima, Seishi, trans. A Critical Edition of Lokakṣema’s Translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prājñāpāramitā, Bibliotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica, XII. Tokyo, International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, 2011.
Kloetzli, Randy. Buddhist Cosmology. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.
Konow, Sten. The First Two Chapters of the Daśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā: Restoration of the Sanskrit Text, Analysis and Index. Oslo: I Kommisjon Hos Jacob Dybwad, 1941.
Lamotte, Étienne. History of Indian Buddhism: from the Origins to the Śaka Era. Paris: Peeters Press, 1988.
Lamotte, Etienne (2010–2011). The Treatise of the Great Virtue of Wisdom. Translated from the French by Karma Migme Chodron.
Law, Bimala Chum. A History of Pāli Literature. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1933.
McRae, John, trans. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (Liùzǔ Tánjīng). Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2000.
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu, trans. The Path of Purification by Buddhaghosa. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1979.
Nasim Khan, M. & M. Sohail Khan, “Buddhist Kharoṣṭhī Manuscripts from Gandhāra: A New Discovery,” The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 12, nos. 1–2 (2004 (2006)). Peshawar: 9–15.
Negi, J.S., ed.: Tibetan Sanskrit Dictionary (Bod skad dang legs sbyar gyi tshig mdzod chen mo). 16 vols. Sarnath: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1993-2005.
Ngawang Zangpo, trans. The Treasury of Knowledge (Books Two, Three, and Four): Buddhism’s Journey to Tibet. By Jamgön Kongtrul. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2010.
Nyima, Tudeng and Gyurme Dorje, trans. An Encyclopaedic Tibetan-English Dictionary. Vol. 1. Beijing and London: Nationalities Publishing House and SOAS, 2001.
Padmakara Translation Group, trans. The Words of My Perfect Teacher. By Patrul Rinpoche. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1994.
Padmakara Translation Group, trans. (2023). The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 9). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
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Red Pine, trans. (2004). The Heart Sutra: The Womb of Buddhas. Shoemaker & Hoard.
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Sparham, Gareth, trans. (2006-2012). Abhisamayālaṃkāra with vṛtti and ālokā / vṛtti by Ārya Vimuktisena; ālokā by Haribhadra. 4 vols. Fremont, CA: Jain Publishing.
Sparham, Gareth, trans. (2022a). The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 10). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Sparham, Gareth, trans. (2022b). The Long Explanation of the Noble Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand, Twenty-Five Thousand, and Eighteen Thousand Lines Sparham, Gareth, trans. (2024). The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 8). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Sparham, Gareth, trans. (2024). The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, Toh 8). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Strauch, Ingo. (2007–2008), “The Bajaur collection: A new collection of Kharoṣṭhī manuscripts. A preliminary catalogue and survey.”
Thrangu Rinpoche, Khenchen et al, trans. The Ornament of Clear Realization. Auckland: Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Charitable Trust Publications, 2004.
Tibetan Classics Translators Guild of New York, trans. The Dharma Council (Dharmasaṅgīti, Toh 238). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2024.
Vienna Buddhist Translation Studies Group, trans. The Questions of Rāṣṭrapāla (Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchāsūtra, Toh 62). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2021.
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ISMEO Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Orient
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LTWA Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India
SOR Serie Orientale Roma
TOK’jam mgon kong sprul, The Treasury of Knowledge. English translations of shes bya kun khyab mdzod by the Kalu Rinpoche Translation Group in The Treasury of Knowledge series (TOK, Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1995 to 2012); mentioned here are Kalu Rinpoche Translation Group 1995 (Book 1) and 1998 (Book 5); Ngawang Zangpo 2010 (Books 2, 3, and 4); Callahan 2007 (Book 6, Part 3); and Dorje 2012 (Book 6 Parts 1–2).
TPD bstan ’gyur dpe bsdur ma [Comparative edition of the Tengyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 120 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 1994–2008.
