While the Buddha is dwelling on Vulture Peak Mountain, the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue asks him what it means to enter the Mahāyāna, and the Buddha responds with a teaching on ten qualities that describe a bodhisattva who has done so. On the topic of the ninth quality, the Buddha teaches on ten events from his life, revealing them to be merely the display of his skill in means and for the purpose of instructing beings. Māra then approaches Vulture Peak Mountain with his army, intending to attack the Buddha, but the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue miraculously instills in him a change of heart. Māra confesses his evil intentions and asks why the Buddha calls him “wicked.” The Buddha explains that he uses harsh speech to discipline Māra, who is like a beloved but unruly only child, just as he always tames beings using the appropriate means.
This text was translated by Peter Alan Roberts and Geoff Picus. Emily Bower edited the text.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. Laura Goetz edited the translation and the introduction, and Ven. Konchog Norbu copyedited the text. Sameer Dhingra was in charge of the digital publication process.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of Wang Yan.
The Ten Qualities is the ninth sūtra among the compilation of forty-nine titles included in the Heap of Jewels (Ratnakūṭa) collection in the Degé Kangyur, which was translated into Tibetan in the late eighth or early ninth century.1 This sūtra presents ten qualities that describe a bodhisattva who has entered the Mahāyāna and focuses especially on the Buddha’s skill in means.
While the Buddha is staying on Vulture Peak Mountain with an assembly of bhikṣus and bodhisattvas, the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue2 asks the Buddha what it means to enter the Mahāyāna. The Buddha responds with a lengthy teaching on ten qualities that describe such a bodhisattva: (1) having faith, (2) being dedicated to practice, (3) being of the perfect family, (4) being intent upon the aspiration to awakening, (5) desiring the Dharma, (6) examining phenomena, (7) following the Dharma in accordance with the Dharma, (8) being free of pride and arrogance, (9) understanding teachings given with a specific intention, and (10) not wishing to attain nirvāṇa through the vehicles of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.
The teaching of each quality concludes with a summarizing verse or set of verses. A verse on the first quality, having faith, is frequently quoted not only in Indian and Tibetan texts but also in contemporary oral teachings:
The ninth section, which concerns the quality of understanding teachings given with a specific intention, is the longest in the sūtra. It points out ten stories from the life of the Buddha that should not be taken literally but should be understood as having an underlying intention to skillfully benefit and guide beings. These ten events are presented as ten statements of the Buddha: (1) He taught that śrāvakas can reach the highest awakening. (2) He stated that he had back pain. (3) He said that he was decrepit with old age and required an attendant. (4) He asked for medicine and then took it. (5) He engaged in disputes with non-Buddhist teachers. (6) His foot was pierced by a splinter. (7) Devadatta was an enemy of the Buddha who attempted to assassinate him. (8) He entered a village and did not receive alms. (9) A woman accused him of making her pregnant. (10) He and his saṅgha subsisted for three months on barley meant for horses during the rains retreat.
As these stories are described here in concise form, at times omitting significant details, this passage assumes the reader is familiar with these accounts from other sources. Several of the same stories are recounted with more detail in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (Toh 82),3 the thirty-ninth sūtra in the Ratnakūṭa collection, and in The Sūtra on Skill in Means (Toh 261).4 Individual stories can also be found in numerous other Kangyur and Tengyur works, as well as in Chinese and Pali sources.5
Apart from the first of these statements, the remaining nine refer to well-known accounts in which the Buddha suffered the negative karmic consequences of actions he committed in past lives. These stories presented a subject of contention within the Buddhist tradition: Was the Buddha still subject to the results of karma?6 In one view, he had attained nirvāṇa with remainder and therefore had to experience the last results of karma, having only upon his death attained complete nirvāṇa. In the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (The Chapter on Medicines, Toh 1-6), in an account known as the Anavataptagāthā, the Buddha miraculously brings his disciples to Lake Anavatapta and there describes to them those actions in his past lives that had caused his unfortunate experiences.7 For example, Devadatta’s attack upon him was the result of having murdered his brother in a past life,8 a splinter entered his foot because he killed someone with a spear,9 and so forth. However, in the view of The Ten Qualities (and also in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara and The Sūtra on Skill in Means), the Buddha is supramundane and therefore unaffected by karma—he only displayed his karmic misfortunes in order to encourage future followers who would face similar challenges, or so that, in the case of Devadatta, others would see his qualities shine forth in the face of adversity. Devadatta, who is routinely described as having been the Buddha’s opponent throughout many lifetimes and to have fallen into hell after his failed attempt to assassinate the Buddha,10 is given a favorable description in this sūtra, which states that Devadatta was merely playing a part to aid the Buddha, and that anyone who condemns Devadatta as evil will themselves be reborn in the lower existences.
Following this teaching on the ten qualities, Māra and his army approach Vulture Peak Mountain by way of the city of Rājagṛha, intending to attack the Buddha. However, the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue miraculously causes them instead to announce to the inhabitants of Rājagṛha that the Buddha is giving a teaching, and that they should attend. Māra, his followers, and the people of the city then travel to Vulture Peak Mountain to hear the Buddha’s teaching. Māra confesses his evil intention and asks why, if harsh speech is taught to be a bad action, the Buddha calls him “wicked.” The Buddha explains that he uses harsh speech to discipline Māra, who is like a beloved but unruly only child, just as he always tames beings using the appropriate means. Māra then expresses his commitment to protect those who recite and uphold this Dharma teaching, and he explains the signs that will occur when one receives his protection.
Ānanda then notices that several non-Buddhist mīmāṃsakas and parivrājakas are rejoicing in Māra’s teaching. The Buddha explains that long ago, at the very same place, another buddha called Suvikrāntavikrāmin taught the very same discourse, at which time those very same mīmāṃsakas and parivrājakas intended to harm him. Although they refrained from hurting that buddha and listened to his teachings, they only superficially expressed their admiration, resulting in mixed karmic results. Ānanda asks the Buddha about the benefits of propagating the sūtra, and the Buddha describes them, along with the great demerit that comes from rejecting this sūtra—he states that it should also be taught to those who will reject it, since it will be a cause for their buddhahood.
The Ten Qualities is referred to in several Indian commentaries. In the sixth century, the Mādhyamika author Bhāviveka (also known as Bhavya, ca. 500–ca. 570) refers to the sūtra as describing the family of the bodhisattvas, which is the third of the ten qualities.11 In the eighth century, Śāntideva (ca. seventh–eighth centuries) quotes in his Compendium of Training (Toh 3940) the first and third of the concluding verses on faith (1.14, 1.16),12 which is the first of the ten qualities, and he also quotes from the section that describes the four causes of developing the aspiration to awakening, which is the fourth of the ten qualities (1.32).13 Śāntideva also quotes a brief description of bodily misconduct (1.18).14 Also in the eighth century, Jñānagarbha (a teacher of Śantarakṣita [725–88]) states how this sūtra is in agreement with The White Lotus of the Good Dharma in its classification of those who are in the bodhisattva family.15 Finally, in a text attributed to the second-century author Nāgārjuna, one verse states, “The purpose of renouncing worldly life and how to determine whether what we have done or left undone should be done or not done––this is explained in The Sūtra on the Ten Dharmas.”16
Only a few of the texts contained in The Heap of Jewels collection are extant in Sanskrit, and The Ten Qualities is not among them, although we find the Sanskrit for the above-mentioned passages in the Compendium of Training. There are two Chinese translations, the first by Buddhaśānta, dated to 539
The Tibetan translation found in the Degé Kangyur was produced by the Indian scholars Jinamitra and Surendrabodhi, and the Tibetan translator-editor Bandé Yeshé Dé, all of whom were known to have flourished during the late eight and early ninth centuries. This dating can be confirmed by the sūtra’s inclusion in both the Denkarma (ldan/lhan dkar ma) and Phangthangma (’phang thang ma) imperial catalogs dated respectively to 812 and 806
Our translation is based primarily on the Degé Kangyur version. We also consulted the Comparative Edition Kangyur (dpe sdur ma) and the Stok Palace Kangyur, and any divergence from the Degé that informed our translation is explained in the endnotes.
At that time, the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue was present within that assembly. The bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue rose from his seat, removed his upper robe from one shoulder, and placed his right knee upon the center of a lotus. He bowed with palms together toward the Bhagavat and said to the Bhagavat, “If the Bhagavat will grant me the opportunity to ask questions and receive an explanation in response to those questions, then there are questions concerning some matters that I would address to the Bhagavat, the Tathāgata, the Arhat, the Samyaksambuddha.”
The Bhagavat replied to the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue, “Noble son, the Tathāgata always gives you that opportunity. Ask whatever questions you wish, and I will gladden your mind with an explanation in response to any question you ask.”
Then the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said to the Bhagavat, “Bhagavat, you have said that this bhikṣu has entered the Mahāyāna and that that bhikṣu has entered the Mahāyāna. Bhagavat, how does a bhikṣu enter the Mahāyāna? When the Tathāgata declares that someone has entered the Mahāyāna, for what reason does he call this Mahāyāna the Mahāyāna?”[F.165.a]
“Well done, King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue!” said the Bhagavat. “Noble son, your having risen from your place is good, your analysis is good, and your confidence in asking for an explanation is also good.
“Noble son, you are like this: You have undertaken to do this for the benefit of many beings, for the happiness of many beings, out of compassion for the world, and for the benefit and happiness of devas and humans. Your motivation for asking the Tathāgata a question for that purpose is excellent, excellent! Therefore, noble son, I shall explain. Listen well and remember!”
The bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said to the Bhagavat, “This is excellent,” and listened.
The Bhagavat said, “Noble son, a bodhisattva who has entered the Mahāyāna possesses ten qualities. What are those ten? (1) They have faith, (2) they are dedicated to practice, (3) they are of the perfect family, (4) they are intent upon the aspiration to awakening, (5) they desire the Dharma, (6) they examine phenomena, (7) they follow the Dharma in accord with the Dharma, (8) they are free of pride and arrogance, (9) they are skilled in understanding teachings given with a specific intention, and (10) they do not wish to attain nirvāṇa through the vehicles of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.”
King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue asked, “Bhagavat, in what way does a bodhisattva have faith?”
“Noble son,” replied the Bhagavat, “in this a bodhisattva mahāsattva is naturally without pretense or deceit. They are honest and have an honest nature. They have conviction in the awakening of the tathāgatas, the arhats, the samyaksambuddhas.[F.165.b] They have the conviction that the three times are included within a single instant of the wisdom of the tathāgatas. They have the conviction that the essence of the Tathāgata does not age, does not die, does not come to an end, does not cease, and cannot be destroyed. They have conviction in the ultimate goal, the dharma realm, the knowledge of all, the knowledge of all aspects, the strengths, the fearlessnesses, and the unique qualities of the buddhas. They have conviction in the invisible uṣṇīṣas of the tathāgatas. They have conviction in the thirty-two signs of a great being that adorn the tathāgatas, in the perfection of their eighty features, and in their fathom-wide auras. They have conviction in the teachings of the śrāvakas, the teachings of the pratyekabuddhas, the teachings of the bodhisattvas, and, distinct from those, the excellent teachings given by the great rishis. They have conviction that there is this life and that there will be future lives. They have conviction in renunciants and brahmins who behave properly and who are on the right course.
“They have the conviction that good karma ripens as that which is desirable, happy, and pleasant, such as becoming a lord of devas among devas, or a lord of humans among humans. They have the conviction that bad karma ripens as results that are undesirable, ugly, unhappy, unpleasant, unendurable, cruel, harsh, and painful for hell beings, animals, and pretas.[F.166.a] There are three qualities that are eliminated by having such convictions. What are those three? They are uncertainty, indecision, and doubt.
“Noble son, that is a bodhisattva who follows with faith. Noble son, it is in that way that a bodhisattva has faith.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble one, what is a bodhisattva who is dedicated to practice like? Noble one, such a bodhisattva shaves off their hair and whiskers, puts on orange robes, and then, with faith, properly goes forth, leaving their home for homelessness. Once they have gone forth, they learn the training, customs, conduct, and behavior of the śrāvakas. They also learn the training, customs, conduct, and behavior of the pratyekabuddhas. Through training in that way, they eliminate completely and in every possible way all wickedness of body, speech, and mind.
“What are the wickednesses of the body? They are killing, taking what is not given, engaging in sexual misconduct, harming others with sticks, weapons, clods of earth, or the hands, moving the arms wildly, moving the legs wildly, running, racing, jumping, moving quickly, and leaping. Those are the wickednesses of the body.[F.166.b]
“What are the wickednesses of speech? They are lying, slander, harsh speech, idle chatter, speaking of the faults of others, rejecting the profound sūtras, and speaking unpleasantly to people such as upādhyāyas, ācāryas, gurus, and fellow practitioners. Those are the wickednesses of speech.
“What are the wickednesses of the mind? They are covetousness, malice, wrong view, jealousy, stinginess, desire for gain, desire for fame, desire for intellectual accomplishments, conceit because of one’s class, conceit because of one’s physical form, conceit because of one’s youth, conceit because of one’s health, conceit because of being alive, conceit because of being learned, and conceit because of one’s meditation. They are thoughts of desire, malicious thoughts, thoughts of violence, thoughts of one’s relatives, thoughts of one’s homeland, and thoughts of Dharma robes, alms, beds, seats, medicines for sickness, and utensils. They are attachment to a place; attachment to a vehicle; attachment to a bed; attachment to drink; attachment to food; attachment to status; attachment to wives, sons, daughters, plows, husbandmen, male servants, female servants, employees, laborers, friends, advisers, relatives, or stepsiblings; attachment to wealth, grain, treasuries, and storehouses; up to attachment to the various basic necessities of life. Because of such attachments, when any of those things are lost, there will be misery, lamenting, suffering, unhappiness, and distress.[F.167.a] Because the mind is saturated by craving in that way, there will be rebirth into another existence. In brief, noble one, catapulted by the machinery of the mind’s activity, there will be endless wandering in the wheel of saṃsāra. Those are the wickedness of the mind.
“Those who have freed themselves from the wickedness of body, speech, and mind perceive the upādhyāya as a teacher, perceive an ācārya as an upādhyāya, and show deference and reverence toward their fellow practitioners, whether they are seniors, novices, or in between. They dwell alone in solitude and think, ‘While I am exerting myself in this way in order to liberate all beings, exerting myself in order to free all beings, and exerting myself in order to establish all beings in discipline and peace, may I not lack self-discipline, peacefulness, observance of vows, or self-control, so that, come what may, the mere sight of me will inspire beings to have self-control and act in accordance with the teaching of the tathāgatas, and so that it will cause devas, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, and so on to rejoice. This is how I will act. This is how I will practice. This is how I will cultivate diligence.’ Noble one, such is the conscience of a bodhisattva.
“They also think, ‘If anyone, be they householder or renunciant, engages in corrupt discipline, engages in corrupt views, engages in corrupt livelihood, engages in corrupt customs, engages in corrupt behavior, or engages in any kind of corruption whatsoever, I will not speak of it.’
“Being conscientious in this way, they will examine their discipline three times a day and three times a night.[F.167.b] Because of having perfectly pure discipline they will have no regrets and no obscurations, and their path will come to an end. It will cause them to be based in and to dwell in the Dharma-Vinaya of the Tathāgata. Noble one, this is called the conscientiousness of a bodhisattva. Noble son, that is how bodhisattvas are dedicated to practice.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, in what way are the bodhisattvas of the perfect family? Noble son, bodhisattvas naturally have little desire, anger, and ignorance. They are without jealousy, and they have no stinginess. They are not dishonest or deceitful. They are not harsh, unkind, rude, or arrogant. They are not talkative or noisy. They are honest and gentle. They are good natured and are pleasant company. Their minds naturally engage in vast reverence and service. They habitually share21 with others whatever wealth and basic necessities they have. They have bright and clear arms, legs, eyes, and heads—the best of limbs.
“On seeing a tathāgata or the śrāvaka disciples of a tathāgata, as soon as they see them, they have nothing but faith and appreciation. Because of having this faith and appreciation, they become members of the perfect family. It is in that way, noble one, that the bodhisattvas are of the perfect family.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, in what way is a bodhisattva intent upon the aspiration to awakening? Noble son, when someone abides in the bodhisattva family and has generated the aspiration to awakening, when by a tathāgata or the śrāvaka disciples of a tathāgata they are inspired, made disillusioned with saṃsāra, encouraged, and made to generate the aspiration for the highest complete awakening, that is the first cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“When, having heard praises of awakening and the aspiration to awakening, they then develop the aspiration to the highest complete awakening, that is the second cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“When they see beings who have no protector, no refuge, no support, no defender, and no sanctuary and think with compassion, ‘May I become for these beings a protector, a refuge, a support, a defender, and a sanctuary,’ and then, based on that cause, condition, and foundation, they develop the aspiration to the highest complete awakening, that is the third cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“When on seeing a tathāgata’s body, which is completely perfect in every way, they are made joyful, made elated, made serene in mind, and made enthusiastic, and then, based on that cause, condition, and foundation, they develop the aspiration to highest complete awakening, that is the fourth cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“Furthermore, for the sole purpose of benefiting and bringing happiness to beings, they practice generosity, maintain discipline, cultivate patience, undertake diligence, settle in equipoise in meditative concentration, and cultivate wisdom.[F.168.b]
“Among those, in what way do they practice generosity? They give food to those who want food, drinks to those who want drinks, vehicles to those who want a vehicle, bedding to those who want bedding, clothes to those who want clothes, and jewelry to those who want bracelets, arm bands, earrings, and other ornaments. In brief, noble son, they benefit beings even by giving their own flesh. That is how they practice generosity. They also dedicate that generosity to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that generosity.
“In what way do they maintain discipline? They restrain their bodies, they restrain their speech, and they restrain their minds. They eliminate each and every physical misbehavior in every possible way, and they eliminate each and every verbal and mental misbehavior in every possible way. They maintain discipline such that it does not deteriorate but remains undamaged, unadulterated, and unstained. That is how they maintain discipline. They also dedicate that discipline to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that discipline.
“In what way do they cultivate patience? If either a householder or a renunciant reviles them, maligns them, beats them, hits them, binds them, imprisons them, strikes them, or troubles them, they are nevertheless patient and endure it. That is how they cultivate patience. They also dedicate that patience to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that patience.
“In what way do they undertake diligence? They think,[F.169.a] ‘Just as the realm of space is infinite and has no end, the realm of beings also is infinite and has no end. Therefore, I alone, by myself, will establish them in the realm of the nirvāṇa that has no residue of the aggregates.’ Based on that cause, that condition, and that foundation, they undertake diligence, and they examine physical sensations through investigation based on mindfulness of the body. When they make the effort to investigate sensations in this way, they make the effort of applying the observation of phenomena to phenomena and the observation of the mind to the mind.
“When they apply mindfulness in that way, so as not to develop any bad, nonvirtuous qualities they have not yet developed, they make the aspiration not to do so, they make an effort not to do so, they undertake the diligence not to do so, they set their mind upon not doing so, and they engage in not doing so.
“In order to eliminate any bad, nonvirtuous qualities they have already developed, they make the aspiration to do so, they make an effort to do so, they undertake the diligence to do so, they set their mind upon doing so, and they engage in doing so.
“In order to develop any virtuous qualities they have not yet developed, they make the aspiration to do so, they make an effort to do so, they undertake the diligence to do so, they set their mind upon doing so, and they engage in doing so.
“In order to maintain the virtuous qualities they have already developed, and so that they will increase, will not diminish, will not be forgotten, and will be brought to perfection, they make the aspiration to do so, they make an effort to do so, they undertake the diligence to do so, they set their mind upon doing so, and they engage in doing so.
“When they have undertaken diligence in that way, they cultivate the first foundation of miraculous powers, and in the same way they cultivate the second, third, and fourth foundations of miraculous powers. Through accomplishing the foundations of miraculous powers in that way, they remain for an eon or for longer than an eon, and they bring to completion the perfection of diligence for an eon or for longer than an eon. That is how they undertake diligence. They also dedicate that diligence to the highest complete awakening, and [F.169.b]they do not become proud on account of that diligence.
“How do they settle in equipoise in meditative concentration? They do not rest in freedom from attachment. They do not rest in cessation. They do not dedicate themselves to relinquishment. They do not rest internally. They do not rest externally. They do not rest on form. They do not rest on sensation. They do not rest on identification. They do not rest on formations. They do not rest on consciousnesses. They do not rest on the realm of desire. They do not rest on the realm of form. They do not rest on the realm of the formless. They do not rest on emptiness. They do not rest on signlessness. They do not rest on wishlessness. They do not rest on this world. They do not rest on transcendence of the world. They do not rest on form. They do not rest on sound. They do not rest on smell. They do not rest on taste. They do not rest on tactile sensation. They do not rest on phenomena.22 They do not rest on generosity. They do not rest on discipline. They do not rest on patience. They do not rest on diligence. They do not rest on meditative concentration. They do not rest on wisdom.
“Noble son, in brief, having eliminated all attachment, they meditate without any basis. That is how they meditate in meditative concentration. They also dedicate that meditative concentration to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that meditation.
“Noble son, how do they cultivate wisdom? They think in this way: ‘Even if the infinite realms of beings were to pass into nirvāṇa, not a single being will have passed into nirvāṇa. Why is that? Because the Bhagavat has taught that all phenomena are devoid of a self, all phenomena are devoid of a being,[F.170.a] and all phenomena are devoid of individuality.’ That is how bodhisattvas cultivate wisdom. They also dedicate that wisdom to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that wisdom. Noble son, that is how a bodhisattva is intent upon the aspiration to awakening.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, in what way is a bodhisattva someone who desires the Dharma? Noble son, a bodhisattva is one who by nature is dedicated to the Dharma, desires the Dharma, delights in the Dharma, and is devoted to the enjoyment of the Dharma.
“If they see someone else who is a renunciant or a brahmin, or someone who is afflicted by hunger and yearns for food, they give them fruits and vegetables, herbs, or any food and drink they have. They also accumulate23 various kinds of worldly sustenance and necessities such as roots, fruits, and stalks and give them away to beings.
“In the presence of those who uphold the good Dharma, they speak respectfully, pay homage, stand, place their hands together, behave respectfully, and then reverently and respectfully ask a question in an appropriate manner. Then when a holder of the good Dharma has answered their question, they consider that holder of the Dharma to be their teacher.[F.170.b] They consider them to be a kalyāṇamitra. They consider them to be someone who liberates from the ocean of saṃsāra. They consider them to be their upādhyāya. They consider them to be their ācārya.
“They consider them to be a searcher, thinking, ‘They are searching for me, as I have wandered in the wilderness of saṃsāra for a long time.’ They consider them to be an awakener, thinking, ‘They are waking me from sleep, as I have been obscured by ignorance and asleep for a long time.’ They consider them to be a rescuer, thinking, ‘They are rescuing me, as I have sunk into the ocean mire of saṃsāra.’ They consider them to be a guide, thinking, ‘They are showing me the good path, as I have entered a bad path.’ They consider them to be a liberator, thinking, ‘They are liberating, as I have been bound in the prison of saṃsāra.’ They consider them to be an excellent physician, thinking, ‘They are an excellent physician for me, as I have been in a wretched state for a long time.’ They consider them to be a great rain cloud, thinking, ‘They are bringing calm, as I have been blazing with the fire of desire, the fire of anger, and the fire of ignorance.’
“On account of the cause being the Dharma, the foundation being the Dharma, and the purpose being the Dharma, they pay no heed to heat. They also pay no heed to cold, wind, sun, horseflies, mosquitos, and contact with snakes. They pay no heed to hunger, and they pay no heed to thirst.
“When they see others who are happy, they do not become motivated by desire but think, ‘I am happy in this world because I have had the experience of hearing the good Dharma.’ They think, ‘It is on account of that being the cause, that being the factor, and that being that foundation that I do not suffer, do not lament, and do not generate thoughts of misery and unhappiness. Since I am free from suffering, lamentation, misery, and unhappiness,[F.171.a] for the sake of just one word of the Dharma taught by the tathāgatas, I will gladly remain in the great hell of Avīci, for an eon or even longer than an eon.’
“Since they give rise to such thoughts and are thereby undeterred and do not need to force themselves, they will exclusively accomplish omniscience and attain the qualities of a buddha that they have not yet attained. That is the way, noble son, that a bodhisattva desires the Dharma.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, how does a bodhisattva examine phenomena? Noble son, a bodhisattva examines in this way: ‘Because they delude foolish ordinary beings, all phenomena are like illusions. Because they do not exist, all phenomena are like dreams. Because they are insubstantial, all phenomena are like the reflection of the moon on water. Because they are without a being, all phenomena are like apparitions. Because they are unreal imputations, all phenomena are like reflections. Because once originated they are destroyed and dissolve, all phenomena are like echoes. Because they are dependently originated, all phenomena, once originated, are destroyed and dissolve. Because they are subsumed within the true nature, all phenomena are unborn. Because they are unborn, all phenomena are unceasing. Because they have no creator, all phenomena are unfabricated. Because they are undefiled, all phenomena are like space. Because they are by their nature not burning, all phenomena [F.171.b]are at peace. Because they are naturally unafflicted, all phenomena are primordially pure. Because they are free of all stains, all phenomena are stainless. Because they are free of the afflictions, all phenomena have primordially passed into parinirvāṇa. Because they have no definitive appearance, all phenomena are not endowed with form. Because they are not corporeal, all phenomena transcend being objects of consciousness. Because locations have been destroyed, all phenomena are not situated in a location. Because they are devoid of attachment and anger, all phenomena are not objects of consciousness. Because they have completely transcended the domain of the afflictions, all phenomena are without location. Because of one’s lack of knowledge of skill in means, all phenomena are like poisonous snakes. Because they have no essence, all phenomena are like the trunk of a plantain tree.24 Because they are fragile by nature, all phenomena are like lumps of foam.’ Noble son, that is how a bodhisattva examines phenomena.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, how does a bodhisattva follow the Dharma in accord with the Dharma? Noble son, since a bodhisattva considers that ‘form is impermanent’[F.172.a] and has no attachment to form, without directly perceiving the nature of phenomena, they understand well by means of correct wisdom the phenomena that accompany the nature of phenomena. They apprehend their features, their descriptions, and their nomenclature, and through apprehending their features, descriptions, and nomenclature, they follow solely the effortless path to the nature of phenomena.
“In the same way, since a bodhisattva considers that ‘sensation, identification, mental events, and consciousness are impermanent’ and has no desire for consciousness, without directly perceiving the nature of phenomena, they understand well by means of correct wisdom the phenomena that accompany the nature of phenomena. They apprehend their features, their descriptions, and their nomenclature, and through apprehending their features, descriptions, and nomenclature, they follow solely the effortless path to the nature of phenomena.
“Just as they view them to be impermanent, they also view them, just as they are, to be suffering, empty, and without a self. They consider that ‘form is without a self,’ and when they view form as without a self, they are not frightened, alarmed, or terrified by form. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that form is not real and rises up due to imputation.
“In the same way, they consider that ‘sensation, identification, mental events, and consciousness are without a self,’ and when they consider that ‘consciousness is without a self,’[F.172.b] they are not frightened, alarmed, or terrified by consciousness. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that consciousness is not real and rises up due to imputation.
“It is like this, noble son: To use an analogy, when a conjurer or a conjurer’s clever disciple has emanated and displayed in front of a crowd of people various kinds of illusory fabrications—herds of elephants, herds of horses, teams of chariots, or battalions of infantry—a wise person is not frightened, alarmed, or terrified when they see them. Why is that? Because they know and understand that those illusory fabrications are phenomena that are unreal, without existence, false, and deceptive.
“In the same way, noble son, when a bodhisattva again considers, ‘form is without a self,’ they are not frightened, alarmed, or terrified. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that form is not real and rises up due to imputation.
“In the same way, when they consider that ‘sensation, identification, mental events, and consciousness are without a self,’ they will not be frightened, alarmed, or terrified by consciousness. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that form is not real and rises up due to imputation.”
Then the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue inquired of the Bhagavat, “Bhagavat, how does a bodhisattva consider form to be impermanent, and, in order to be free of attachment to form,[F.173.a] understand well by means of correct wisdom the phenomena that accompany the nature of phenomena without directly perceiving the nature of phenomena?”
The Bhagavat answered the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue with these words: “Noble son, since some wise people understand the full meaning of what is to be taught through analogy, I will make an analogy, so listen, noble son! It is like this: If some wise person makes use of poison, they will sometimes clean the poison, conceal it, make wealth from it, possess it, and cook it in various utensils, but they will not eat it. Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause my life to come to an end.’
“In the same way, noble son, a bodhisattva is motivated toward nirvāṇa, is dedicated to nirvāṇa, is devoted to nirvāṇa, and is engaged in reaching nirvāṇa, but they do not manifest nirvāṇa. Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause me to turn away from awakening.’
“To give an analogy, noble son, some wise person makes use of fire, and although they will sometimes serve, honor, venerate, make offerings to, and worship that fire, they will think, ‘I have served, honored, venerated, made offerings to, and worshiped this fire, but I will not take hold of it with my two hands.’ Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause me physical suffering and mental unhappiness.’
“In the same way, noble son, a bodhisattva [F.173.b]is motivated toward nirvāṇa, is dedicated to nirvāṇa, is devoted to nirvāṇa, and is engaged in reaching nirvāṇa, but they do not manifest nirvāṇa. Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause me to turn away from awakening.’ ”
After the Bhagavat had spoken, the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said, “Bhagavat, if I have understood what the Bhagavat has said, a bodhisattva resides solely in saṃsāra.”
“Yes, noble son,” replied the Bhagavat, “that is so. It is as you have said. A bodhisattva resides solely in saṃsāra.”
“Bhagavat, how is a bodhisattva unstained by the faults of saṃsāra while circling in saṃsāra?”
The Bhagavat replied, “Noble son, to answer that I will make an analogy, so listen, noble son. It is like this: Although a person25 who handles snakes and is endowed with tremendous powers of mantra and medicine plays with and delights in26 poisonous snakes, that does not cause them to lose their life. Why is that? Because they have attained the power of mantra and medicine on account of their wisdom, method, and reasoning.”
After the Bhagavat had spoken, the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said, “Bhagavat, the bodhisattva mahāsattva does not manifest nirvāṇa and is not stained by the faults of saṃsāra, which is marvelous, Bhagavat.[F.174.a] It is marvelous, Sugata. It is extremely marvelous, Bhagavat. It is marvelous, Sugata. Bhagavat, it is amazing. Sugata, it is amazing. I go to those bodhisattvas for refuge.
“Bhagavat, any being who hears this Dharma teaching will, at the very least, attain purity of mind, and their good roots will not be insignificant.
“Bhagavat, any noble son or noble daughter who hears this Dharma teaching taught will be prophesied to attain the highest complete awakening.”
“Noble son, it is so,” said the Bhagavat. “It is as you have said. Any noble son or noble daughter who hears this Dharma teaching taught will be prophesied to attain the highest complete awakening.”
When this Dharma teaching was taught, the minds of the five hundred bhikṣus were liberated from the defilements without further appropriation. They rose from their seats, removed their upper robes from one shoulder, and placed their right knees upon the ground. They bowed, with palms together, toward the Bhagavat, and said to the Bhagavat, “Bhagavat, the bodhisattva mahāsattvas are worthy of homage. Sugata, the bodhisattva mahāsattvas are worthy of homage.”
“Bhikṣus, it is so. It is as you have said,” replied the Bhagavat.
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, that is how a bodhisattva follows the Dharma in accord with the Dharma.
“Noble son, how is a bodhisattva free of pride and arrogance? Noble son, ‘pride’ means that one thinks with a sense of rivalry that one is without equal in regard to one’s class, clan, body, money,27 gold, jewels, and whatever other belongings one has, or in regard to one’s collection of elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers, and in that way one’s thoughts become inflated. That is what is meant by ‘pride.’
“ ‘Arrogance’ means that one thinks, ‘I am superior to others in regard to my class, clan, body, money,28 gold, jewels, and my abundant grain, and in regard to my collection of elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers,’ and in that way one’s thoughts become puffed up and devoid of humility. This is what is meant by ‘arrogance.’
“When a bodhisattva is free from those, they are said to be ‘free of pride and arrogance.’ ”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these lines of verse:
“Noble son, in what way is a bodhisattva skilled in understanding teachings given with a specific intention?
“Noble son, a bodhisattva does not become attached to only the literal meaning of the profound sūtras, which are the Tathāgata’s teachings given with a specific intention. What are the Tathāgata’s teachings given with a specific intention? They are like this:
While the Buddha is dwelling on Vulture Peak Mountain, the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue asks him what it means to enter the Mahāyāna, and the Buddha responds with a teaching on ten qualities that describe a bodhisattva who has done so. On the topic of the ninth quality, the Buddha teaches on ten events from his life, revealing them to be merely the display of his skill in means and for the purpose of instructing beings. Māra then approaches Vulture Peak Mountain with his army, intending to attack the Buddha, but the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue miraculously instills in him a change of heart. Māra confesses his evil intentions and asks why the Buddha calls him “wicked.” The Buddha explains that he uses harsh speech to discipline Māra, who is like a beloved but unruly only child, just as he always tames beings using the appropriate means.
This text was translated by Peter Alan Roberts and Geoff Picus. Emily Bower edited the text.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. Laura Goetz edited the translation and the introduction, and Ven. Konchog Norbu copyedited the text. Sameer Dhingra was in charge of the digital publication process.
The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of Wang Yan.
The Ten Qualities is the ninth sūtra among the compilation of forty-nine titles included in the Heap of Jewels (Ratnakūṭa) collection in the Degé Kangyur, which was translated into Tibetan in the late eighth or early ninth century.1 This sūtra presents ten qualities that describe a bodhisattva who has entered the Mahāyāna and focuses especially on the Buddha’s skill in means.
While the Buddha is staying on Vulture Peak Mountain with an assembly of bhikṣus and bodhisattvas, the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue2 asks the Buddha what it means to enter the Mahāyāna. The Buddha responds with a lengthy teaching on ten qualities that describe such a bodhisattva: (1) having faith, (2) being dedicated to practice, (3) being of the perfect family, (4) being intent upon the aspiration to awakening, (5) desiring the Dharma, (6) examining phenomena, (7) following the Dharma in accordance with the Dharma, (8) being free of pride and arrogance, (9) understanding teachings given with a specific intention, and (10) not wishing to attain nirvāṇa through the vehicles of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.
The teaching of each quality concludes with a summarizing verse or set of verses. A verse on the first quality, having faith, is frequently quoted not only in Indian and Tibetan texts but also in contemporary oral teachings:
The ninth section, which concerns the quality of understanding teachings given with a specific intention, is the longest in the sūtra. It points out ten stories from the life of the Buddha that should not be taken literally but should be understood as having an underlying intention to skillfully benefit and guide beings. These ten events are presented as ten statements of the Buddha: (1) He taught that śrāvakas can reach the highest awakening. (2) He stated that he had back pain. (3) He said that he was decrepit with old age and required an attendant. (4) He asked for medicine and then took it. (5) He engaged in disputes with non-Buddhist teachers. (6) His foot was pierced by a splinter. (7) Devadatta was an enemy of the Buddha who attempted to assassinate him. (8) He entered a village and did not receive alms. (9) A woman accused him of making her pregnant. (10) He and his saṅgha subsisted for three months on barley meant for horses during the rains retreat.
As these stories are described here in concise form, at times omitting significant details, this passage assumes the reader is familiar with these accounts from other sources. Several of the same stories are recounted with more detail in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (Toh 82),3 the thirty-ninth sūtra in the Ratnakūṭa collection, and in The Sūtra on Skill in Means (Toh 261).4 Individual stories can also be found in numerous other Kangyur and Tengyur works, as well as in Chinese and Pali sources.5
Apart from the first of these statements, the remaining nine refer to well-known accounts in which the Buddha suffered the negative karmic consequences of actions he committed in past lives. These stories presented a subject of contention within the Buddhist tradition: Was the Buddha still subject to the results of karma?6 In one view, he had attained nirvāṇa with remainder and therefore had to experience the last results of karma, having only upon his death attained complete nirvāṇa. In the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (The Chapter on Medicines, Toh 1-6), in an account known as the Anavataptagāthā, the Buddha miraculously brings his disciples to Lake Anavatapta and there describes to them those actions in his past lives that had caused his unfortunate experiences.7 For example, Devadatta’s attack upon him was the result of having murdered his brother in a past life,8 a splinter entered his foot because he killed someone with a spear,9 and so forth. However, in the view of The Ten Qualities (and also in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara and The Sūtra on Skill in Means), the Buddha is supramundane and therefore unaffected by karma—he only displayed his karmic misfortunes in order to encourage future followers who would face similar challenges, or so that, in the case of Devadatta, others would see his qualities shine forth in the face of adversity. Devadatta, who is routinely described as having been the Buddha’s opponent throughout many lifetimes and to have fallen into hell after his failed attempt to assassinate the Buddha,10 is given a favorable description in this sūtra, which states that Devadatta was merely playing a part to aid the Buddha, and that anyone who condemns Devadatta as evil will themselves be reborn in the lower existences.
Following this teaching on the ten qualities, Māra and his army approach Vulture Peak Mountain by way of the city of Rājagṛha, intending to attack the Buddha. However, the bodhisattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue miraculously causes them instead to announce to the inhabitants of Rājagṛha that the Buddha is giving a teaching, and that they should attend. Māra, his followers, and the people of the city then travel to Vulture Peak Mountain to hear the Buddha’s teaching. Māra confesses his evil intention and asks why, if harsh speech is taught to be a bad action, the Buddha calls him “wicked.” The Buddha explains that he uses harsh speech to discipline Māra, who is like a beloved but unruly only child, just as he always tames beings using the appropriate means. Māra then expresses his commitment to protect those who recite and uphold this Dharma teaching, and he explains the signs that will occur when one receives his protection.
Ānanda then notices that several non-Buddhist mīmāṃsakas and parivrājakas are rejoicing in Māra’s teaching. The Buddha explains that long ago, at the very same place, another buddha called Suvikrāntavikrāmin taught the very same discourse, at which time those very same mīmāṃsakas and parivrājakas intended to harm him. Although they refrained from hurting that buddha and listened to his teachings, they only superficially expressed their admiration, resulting in mixed karmic results. Ānanda asks the Buddha about the benefits of propagating the sūtra, and the Buddha describes them, along with the great demerit that comes from rejecting this sūtra—he states that it should also be taught to those who will reject it, since it will be a cause for their buddhahood.
The Ten Qualities is referred to in several Indian commentaries. In the sixth century, the Mādhyamika author Bhāviveka (also known as Bhavya, ca. 500–ca. 570) refers to the sūtra as describing the family of the bodhisattvas, which is the third of the ten qualities.11 In the eighth century, Śāntideva (ca. seventh–eighth centuries) quotes in his Compendium of Training (Toh 3940) the first and third of the concluding verses on faith (1.14, 1.16),12 which is the first of the ten qualities, and he also quotes from the section that describes the four causes of developing the aspiration to awakening, which is the fourth of the ten qualities (1.32).13 Śāntideva also quotes a brief description of bodily misconduct (1.18).14 Also in the eighth century, Jñānagarbha (a teacher of Śantarakṣita [725–88]) states how this sūtra is in agreement with The White Lotus of the Good Dharma in its classification of those who are in the bodhisattva family.15 Finally, in a text attributed to the second-century author Nāgārjuna, one verse states, “The purpose of renouncing worldly life and how to determine whether what we have done or left undone should be done or not done––this is explained in The Sūtra on the Ten Dharmas.”16
Only a few of the texts contained in The Heap of Jewels collection are extant in Sanskrit, and The Ten Qualities is not among them, although we find the Sanskrit for the above-mentioned passages in the Compendium of Training. There are two Chinese translations, the first by Buddhaśānta, dated to 539
The Tibetan translation found in the Degé Kangyur was produced by the Indian scholars Jinamitra and Surendrabodhi, and the Tibetan translator-editor Bandé Yeshé Dé, all of whom were known to have flourished during the late eight and early ninth centuries. This dating can be confirmed by the sūtra’s inclusion in both the Denkarma (ldan/lhan dkar ma) and Phangthangma (’phang thang ma) imperial catalogs dated respectively to 812 and 806
Our translation is based primarily on the Degé Kangyur version. We also consulted the Comparative Edition Kangyur (dpe sdur ma) and the Stok Palace Kangyur, and any divergence from the Degé that informed our translation is explained in the endnotes.
At that time, the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue was present within that assembly. The bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue rose from his seat, removed his upper robe from one shoulder, and placed his right knee upon the center of a lotus. He bowed with palms together toward the Bhagavat and said to the Bhagavat, “If the Bhagavat will grant me the opportunity to ask questions and receive an explanation in response to those questions, then there are questions concerning some matters that I would address to the Bhagavat, the Tathāgata, the Arhat, the Samyaksambuddha.”
The Bhagavat replied to the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue, “Noble son, the Tathāgata always gives you that opportunity. Ask whatever questions you wish, and I will gladden your mind with an explanation in response to any question you ask.”
Then the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said to the Bhagavat, “Bhagavat, you have said that this bhikṣu has entered the Mahāyāna and that that bhikṣu has entered the Mahāyāna. Bhagavat, how does a bhikṣu enter the Mahāyāna? When the Tathāgata declares that someone has entered the Mahāyāna, for what reason does he call this Mahāyāna the Mahāyāna?”[F.165.a]
“Well done, King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue!” said the Bhagavat. “Noble son, your having risen from your place is good, your analysis is good, and your confidence in asking for an explanation is also good.
“Noble son, you are like this: You have undertaken to do this for the benefit of many beings, for the happiness of many beings, out of compassion for the world, and for the benefit and happiness of devas and humans. Your motivation for asking the Tathāgata a question for that purpose is excellent, excellent! Therefore, noble son, I shall explain. Listen well and remember!”
The bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said to the Bhagavat, “This is excellent,” and listened.
The Bhagavat said, “Noble son, a bodhisattva who has entered the Mahāyāna possesses ten qualities. What are those ten? (1) They have faith, (2) they are dedicated to practice, (3) they are of the perfect family, (4) they are intent upon the aspiration to awakening, (5) they desire the Dharma, (6) they examine phenomena, (7) they follow the Dharma in accord with the Dharma, (8) they are free of pride and arrogance, (9) they are skilled in understanding teachings given with a specific intention, and (10) they do not wish to attain nirvāṇa through the vehicles of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.”
King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue asked, “Bhagavat, in what way does a bodhisattva have faith?”
“Noble son,” replied the Bhagavat, “in this a bodhisattva mahāsattva is naturally without pretense or deceit. They are honest and have an honest nature. They have conviction in the awakening of the tathāgatas, the arhats, the samyaksambuddhas.[F.165.b] They have the conviction that the three times are included within a single instant of the wisdom of the tathāgatas. They have the conviction that the essence of the Tathāgata does not age, does not die, does not come to an end, does not cease, and cannot be destroyed. They have conviction in the ultimate goal, the dharma realm, the knowledge of all, the knowledge of all aspects, the strengths, the fearlessnesses, and the unique qualities of the buddhas. They have conviction in the invisible uṣṇīṣas of the tathāgatas. They have conviction in the thirty-two signs of a great being that adorn the tathāgatas, in the perfection of their eighty features, and in their fathom-wide auras. They have conviction in the teachings of the śrāvakas, the teachings of the pratyekabuddhas, the teachings of the bodhisattvas, and, distinct from those, the excellent teachings given by the great rishis. They have conviction that there is this life and that there will be future lives. They have conviction in renunciants and brahmins who behave properly and who are on the right course.
“They have the conviction that good karma ripens as that which is desirable, happy, and pleasant, such as becoming a lord of devas among devas, or a lord of humans among humans. They have the conviction that bad karma ripens as results that are undesirable, ugly, unhappy, unpleasant, unendurable, cruel, harsh, and painful for hell beings, animals, and pretas.[F.166.a] There are three qualities that are eliminated by having such convictions. What are those three? They are uncertainty, indecision, and doubt.
“Noble son, that is a bodhisattva who follows with faith. Noble son, it is in that way that a bodhisattva has faith.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble one, what is a bodhisattva who is dedicated to practice like? Noble one, such a bodhisattva shaves off their hair and whiskers, puts on orange robes, and then, with faith, properly goes forth, leaving their home for homelessness. Once they have gone forth, they learn the training, customs, conduct, and behavior of the śrāvakas. They also learn the training, customs, conduct, and behavior of the pratyekabuddhas. Through training in that way, they eliminate completely and in every possible way all wickedness of body, speech, and mind.
“What are the wickednesses of the body? They are killing, taking what is not given, engaging in sexual misconduct, harming others with sticks, weapons, clods of earth, or the hands, moving the arms wildly, moving the legs wildly, running, racing, jumping, moving quickly, and leaping. Those are the wickednesses of the body.[F.166.b]
“What are the wickednesses of speech? They are lying, slander, harsh speech, idle chatter, speaking of the faults of others, rejecting the profound sūtras, and speaking unpleasantly to people such as upādhyāyas, ācāryas, gurus, and fellow practitioners. Those are the wickednesses of speech.
“What are the wickednesses of the mind? They are covetousness, malice, wrong view, jealousy, stinginess, desire for gain, desire for fame, desire for intellectual accomplishments, conceit because of one’s class, conceit because of one’s physical form, conceit because of one’s youth, conceit because of one’s health, conceit because of being alive, conceit because of being learned, and conceit because of one’s meditation. They are thoughts of desire, malicious thoughts, thoughts of violence, thoughts of one’s relatives, thoughts of one’s homeland, and thoughts of Dharma robes, alms, beds, seats, medicines for sickness, and utensils. They are attachment to a place; attachment to a vehicle; attachment to a bed; attachment to drink; attachment to food; attachment to status; attachment to wives, sons, daughters, plows, husbandmen, male servants, female servants, employees, laborers, friends, advisers, relatives, or stepsiblings; attachment to wealth, grain, treasuries, and storehouses; up to attachment to the various basic necessities of life. Because of such attachments, when any of those things are lost, there will be misery, lamenting, suffering, unhappiness, and distress.[F.167.a] Because the mind is saturated by craving in that way, there will be rebirth into another existence. In brief, noble one, catapulted by the machinery of the mind’s activity, there will be endless wandering in the wheel of saṃsāra. Those are the wickedness of the mind.
“Those who have freed themselves from the wickedness of body, speech, and mind perceive the upādhyāya as a teacher, perceive an ācārya as an upādhyāya, and show deference and reverence toward their fellow practitioners, whether they are seniors, novices, or in between. They dwell alone in solitude and think, ‘While I am exerting myself in this way in order to liberate all beings, exerting myself in order to free all beings, and exerting myself in order to establish all beings in discipline and peace, may I not lack self-discipline, peacefulness, observance of vows, or self-control, so that, come what may, the mere sight of me will inspire beings to have self-control and act in accordance with the teaching of the tathāgatas, and so that it will cause devas, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, and so on to rejoice. This is how I will act. This is how I will practice. This is how I will cultivate diligence.’ Noble one, such is the conscience of a bodhisattva.
“They also think, ‘If anyone, be they householder or renunciant, engages in corrupt discipline, engages in corrupt views, engages in corrupt livelihood, engages in corrupt customs, engages in corrupt behavior, or engages in any kind of corruption whatsoever, I will not speak of it.’
“Being conscientious in this way, they will examine their discipline three times a day and three times a night.[F.167.b] Because of having perfectly pure discipline they will have no regrets and no obscurations, and their path will come to an end. It will cause them to be based in and to dwell in the Dharma-Vinaya of the Tathāgata. Noble one, this is called the conscientiousness of a bodhisattva. Noble son, that is how bodhisattvas are dedicated to practice.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, in what way are the bodhisattvas of the perfect family? Noble son, bodhisattvas naturally have little desire, anger, and ignorance. They are without jealousy, and they have no stinginess. They are not dishonest or deceitful. They are not harsh, unkind, rude, or arrogant. They are not talkative or noisy. They are honest and gentle. They are good natured and are pleasant company. Their minds naturally engage in vast reverence and service. They habitually share21 with others whatever wealth and basic necessities they have. They have bright and clear arms, legs, eyes, and heads—the best of limbs.
“On seeing a tathāgata or the śrāvaka disciples of a tathāgata, as soon as they see them, they have nothing but faith and appreciation. Because of having this faith and appreciation, they become members of the perfect family. It is in that way, noble one, that the bodhisattvas are of the perfect family.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, in what way is a bodhisattva intent upon the aspiration to awakening? Noble son, when someone abides in the bodhisattva family and has generated the aspiration to awakening, when by a tathāgata or the śrāvaka disciples of a tathāgata they are inspired, made disillusioned with saṃsāra, encouraged, and made to generate the aspiration for the highest complete awakening, that is the first cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“When, having heard praises of awakening and the aspiration to awakening, they then develop the aspiration to the highest complete awakening, that is the second cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“When they see beings who have no protector, no refuge, no support, no defender, and no sanctuary and think with compassion, ‘May I become for these beings a protector, a refuge, a support, a defender, and a sanctuary,’ and then, based on that cause, condition, and foundation, they develop the aspiration to the highest complete awakening, that is the third cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“When on seeing a tathāgata’s body, which is completely perfect in every way, they are made joyful, made elated, made serene in mind, and made enthusiastic, and then, based on that cause, condition, and foundation, they develop the aspiration to highest complete awakening, that is the fourth cause for becoming intent upon the aspiration to awakening.
“Furthermore, for the sole purpose of benefiting and bringing happiness to beings, they practice generosity, maintain discipline, cultivate patience, undertake diligence, settle in equipoise in meditative concentration, and cultivate wisdom.[F.168.b]
“Among those, in what way do they practice generosity? They give food to those who want food, drinks to those who want drinks, vehicles to those who want a vehicle, bedding to those who want bedding, clothes to those who want clothes, and jewelry to those who want bracelets, arm bands, earrings, and other ornaments. In brief, noble son, they benefit beings even by giving their own flesh. That is how they practice generosity. They also dedicate that generosity to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that generosity.
“In what way do they maintain discipline? They restrain their bodies, they restrain their speech, and they restrain their minds. They eliminate each and every physical misbehavior in every possible way, and they eliminate each and every verbal and mental misbehavior in every possible way. They maintain discipline such that it does not deteriorate but remains undamaged, unadulterated, and unstained. That is how they maintain discipline. They also dedicate that discipline to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that discipline.
“In what way do they cultivate patience? If either a householder or a renunciant reviles them, maligns them, beats them, hits them, binds them, imprisons them, strikes them, or troubles them, they are nevertheless patient and endure it. That is how they cultivate patience. They also dedicate that patience to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that patience.
“In what way do they undertake diligence? They think,[F.169.a] ‘Just as the realm of space is infinite and has no end, the realm of beings also is infinite and has no end. Therefore, I alone, by myself, will establish them in the realm of the nirvāṇa that has no residue of the aggregates.’ Based on that cause, that condition, and that foundation, they undertake diligence, and they examine physical sensations through investigation based on mindfulness of the body. When they make the effort to investigate sensations in this way, they make the effort of applying the observation of phenomena to phenomena and the observation of the mind to the mind.
“When they apply mindfulness in that way, so as not to develop any bad, nonvirtuous qualities they have not yet developed, they make the aspiration not to do so, they make an effort not to do so, they undertake the diligence not to do so, they set their mind upon not doing so, and they engage in not doing so.
“In order to eliminate any bad, nonvirtuous qualities they have already developed, they make the aspiration to do so, they make an effort to do so, they undertake the diligence to do so, they set their mind upon doing so, and they engage in doing so.
“In order to develop any virtuous qualities they have not yet developed, they make the aspiration to do so, they make an effort to do so, they undertake the diligence to do so, they set their mind upon doing so, and they engage in doing so.
“In order to maintain the virtuous qualities they have already developed, and so that they will increase, will not diminish, will not be forgotten, and will be brought to perfection, they make the aspiration to do so, they make an effort to do so, they undertake the diligence to do so, they set their mind upon doing so, and they engage in doing so.
“When they have undertaken diligence in that way, they cultivate the first foundation of miraculous powers, and in the same way they cultivate the second, third, and fourth foundations of miraculous powers. Through accomplishing the foundations of miraculous powers in that way, they remain for an eon or for longer than an eon, and they bring to completion the perfection of diligence for an eon or for longer than an eon. That is how they undertake diligence. They also dedicate that diligence to the highest complete awakening, and [F.169.b]they do not become proud on account of that diligence.
“How do they settle in equipoise in meditative concentration? They do not rest in freedom from attachment. They do not rest in cessation. They do not dedicate themselves to relinquishment. They do not rest internally. They do not rest externally. They do not rest on form. They do not rest on sensation. They do not rest on identification. They do not rest on formations. They do not rest on consciousnesses. They do not rest on the realm of desire. They do not rest on the realm of form. They do not rest on the realm of the formless. They do not rest on emptiness. They do not rest on signlessness. They do not rest on wishlessness. They do not rest on this world. They do not rest on transcendence of the world. They do not rest on form. They do not rest on sound. They do not rest on smell. They do not rest on taste. They do not rest on tactile sensation. They do not rest on phenomena.22 They do not rest on generosity. They do not rest on discipline. They do not rest on patience. They do not rest on diligence. They do not rest on meditative concentration. They do not rest on wisdom.
“Noble son, in brief, having eliminated all attachment, they meditate without any basis. That is how they meditate in meditative concentration. They also dedicate that meditative concentration to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that meditation.
“Noble son, how do they cultivate wisdom? They think in this way: ‘Even if the infinite realms of beings were to pass into nirvāṇa, not a single being will have passed into nirvāṇa. Why is that? Because the Bhagavat has taught that all phenomena are devoid of a self, all phenomena are devoid of a being,[F.170.a] and all phenomena are devoid of individuality.’ That is how bodhisattvas cultivate wisdom. They also dedicate that wisdom to the highest complete awakening, and they do not become proud on account of that wisdom. Noble son, that is how a bodhisattva is intent upon the aspiration to awakening.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, in what way is a bodhisattva someone who desires the Dharma? Noble son, a bodhisattva is one who by nature is dedicated to the Dharma, desires the Dharma, delights in the Dharma, and is devoted to the enjoyment of the Dharma.
“If they see someone else who is a renunciant or a brahmin, or someone who is afflicted by hunger and yearns for food, they give them fruits and vegetables, herbs, or any food and drink they have. They also accumulate23 various kinds of worldly sustenance and necessities such as roots, fruits, and stalks and give them away to beings.
“In the presence of those who uphold the good Dharma, they speak respectfully, pay homage, stand, place their hands together, behave respectfully, and then reverently and respectfully ask a question in an appropriate manner. Then when a holder of the good Dharma has answered their question, they consider that holder of the Dharma to be their teacher.[F.170.b] They consider them to be a kalyāṇamitra. They consider them to be someone who liberates from the ocean of saṃsāra. They consider them to be their upādhyāya. They consider them to be their ācārya.
“They consider them to be a searcher, thinking, ‘They are searching for me, as I have wandered in the wilderness of saṃsāra for a long time.’ They consider them to be an awakener, thinking, ‘They are waking me from sleep, as I have been obscured by ignorance and asleep for a long time.’ They consider them to be a rescuer, thinking, ‘They are rescuing me, as I have sunk into the ocean mire of saṃsāra.’ They consider them to be a guide, thinking, ‘They are showing me the good path, as I have entered a bad path.’ They consider them to be a liberator, thinking, ‘They are liberating, as I have been bound in the prison of saṃsāra.’ They consider them to be an excellent physician, thinking, ‘They are an excellent physician for me, as I have been in a wretched state for a long time.’ They consider them to be a great rain cloud, thinking, ‘They are bringing calm, as I have been blazing with the fire of desire, the fire of anger, and the fire of ignorance.’
“On account of the cause being the Dharma, the foundation being the Dharma, and the purpose being the Dharma, they pay no heed to heat. They also pay no heed to cold, wind, sun, horseflies, mosquitos, and contact with snakes. They pay no heed to hunger, and they pay no heed to thirst.
“When they see others who are happy, they do not become motivated by desire but think, ‘I am happy in this world because I have had the experience of hearing the good Dharma.’ They think, ‘It is on account of that being the cause, that being the factor, and that being that foundation that I do not suffer, do not lament, and do not generate thoughts of misery and unhappiness. Since I am free from suffering, lamentation, misery, and unhappiness,[F.171.a] for the sake of just one word of the Dharma taught by the tathāgatas, I will gladly remain in the great hell of Avīci, for an eon or even longer than an eon.’
“Since they give rise to such thoughts and are thereby undeterred and do not need to force themselves, they will exclusively accomplish omniscience and attain the qualities of a buddha that they have not yet attained. That is the way, noble son, that a bodhisattva desires the Dharma.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, how does a bodhisattva examine phenomena? Noble son, a bodhisattva examines in this way: ‘Because they delude foolish ordinary beings, all phenomena are like illusions. Because they do not exist, all phenomena are like dreams. Because they are insubstantial, all phenomena are like the reflection of the moon on water. Because they are without a being, all phenomena are like apparitions. Because they are unreal imputations, all phenomena are like reflections. Because once originated they are destroyed and dissolve, all phenomena are like echoes. Because they are dependently originated, all phenomena, once originated, are destroyed and dissolve. Because they are subsumed within the true nature, all phenomena are unborn. Because they are unborn, all phenomena are unceasing. Because they have no creator, all phenomena are unfabricated. Because they are undefiled, all phenomena are like space. Because they are by their nature not burning, all phenomena [F.171.b]are at peace. Because they are naturally unafflicted, all phenomena are primordially pure. Because they are free of all stains, all phenomena are stainless. Because they are free of the afflictions, all phenomena have primordially passed into parinirvāṇa. Because they have no definitive appearance, all phenomena are not endowed with form. Because they are not corporeal, all phenomena transcend being objects of consciousness. Because locations have been destroyed, all phenomena are not situated in a location. Because they are devoid of attachment and anger, all phenomena are not objects of consciousness. Because they have completely transcended the domain of the afflictions, all phenomena are without location. Because of one’s lack of knowledge of skill in means, all phenomena are like poisonous snakes. Because they have no essence, all phenomena are like the trunk of a plantain tree.24 Because they are fragile by nature, all phenomena are like lumps of foam.’ Noble son, that is how a bodhisattva examines phenomena.”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, how does a bodhisattva follow the Dharma in accord with the Dharma? Noble son, since a bodhisattva considers that ‘form is impermanent’[F.172.a] and has no attachment to form, without directly perceiving the nature of phenomena, they understand well by means of correct wisdom the phenomena that accompany the nature of phenomena. They apprehend their features, their descriptions, and their nomenclature, and through apprehending their features, descriptions, and nomenclature, they follow solely the effortless path to the nature of phenomena.
“In the same way, since a bodhisattva considers that ‘sensation, identification, mental events, and consciousness are impermanent’ and has no desire for consciousness, without directly perceiving the nature of phenomena, they understand well by means of correct wisdom the phenomena that accompany the nature of phenomena. They apprehend their features, their descriptions, and their nomenclature, and through apprehending their features, descriptions, and nomenclature, they follow solely the effortless path to the nature of phenomena.
“Just as they view them to be impermanent, they also view them, just as they are, to be suffering, empty, and without a self. They consider that ‘form is without a self,’ and when they view form as without a self, they are not frightened, alarmed, or terrified by form. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that form is not real and rises up due to imputation.
“In the same way, they consider that ‘sensation, identification, mental events, and consciousness are without a self,’ and when they consider that ‘consciousness is without a self,’[F.172.b] they are not frightened, alarmed, or terrified by consciousness. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that consciousness is not real and rises up due to imputation.
“It is like this, noble son: To use an analogy, when a conjurer or a conjurer’s clever disciple has emanated and displayed in front of a crowd of people various kinds of illusory fabrications—herds of elephants, herds of horses, teams of chariots, or battalions of infantry—a wise person is not frightened, alarmed, or terrified when they see them. Why is that? Because they know and understand that those illusory fabrications are phenomena that are unreal, without existence, false, and deceptive.
“In the same way, noble son, when a bodhisattva again considers, ‘form is without a self,’ they are not frightened, alarmed, or terrified. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that form is not real and rises up due to imputation.
“In the same way, when they consider that ‘sensation, identification, mental events, and consciousness are without a self,’ they will not be frightened, alarmed, or terrified by consciousness. Why is that? Because they know correctly, just as it is, that form is not real and rises up due to imputation.”
Then the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue inquired of the Bhagavat, “Bhagavat, how does a bodhisattva consider form to be impermanent, and, in order to be free of attachment to form,[F.173.a] understand well by means of correct wisdom the phenomena that accompany the nature of phenomena without directly perceiving the nature of phenomena?”
The Bhagavat answered the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue with these words: “Noble son, since some wise people understand the full meaning of what is to be taught through analogy, I will make an analogy, so listen, noble son! It is like this: If some wise person makes use of poison, they will sometimes clean the poison, conceal it, make wealth from it, possess it, and cook it in various utensils, but they will not eat it. Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause my life to come to an end.’
“In the same way, noble son, a bodhisattva is motivated toward nirvāṇa, is dedicated to nirvāṇa, is devoted to nirvāṇa, and is engaged in reaching nirvāṇa, but they do not manifest nirvāṇa. Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause me to turn away from awakening.’
“To give an analogy, noble son, some wise person makes use of fire, and although they will sometimes serve, honor, venerate, make offerings to, and worship that fire, they will think, ‘I have served, honored, venerated, made offerings to, and worshiped this fire, but I will not take hold of it with my two hands.’ Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause me physical suffering and mental unhappiness.’
“In the same way, noble son, a bodhisattva [F.173.b]is motivated toward nirvāṇa, is dedicated to nirvāṇa, is devoted to nirvāṇa, and is engaged in reaching nirvāṇa, but they do not manifest nirvāṇa. Why is that? Because they think, ‘This would cause me to turn away from awakening.’ ”
After the Bhagavat had spoken, the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said, “Bhagavat, if I have understood what the Bhagavat has said, a bodhisattva resides solely in saṃsāra.”
“Yes, noble son,” replied the Bhagavat, “that is so. It is as you have said. A bodhisattva resides solely in saṃsāra.”
“Bhagavat, how is a bodhisattva unstained by the faults of saṃsāra while circling in saṃsāra?”
The Bhagavat replied, “Noble son, to answer that I will make an analogy, so listen, noble son. It is like this: Although a person25 who handles snakes and is endowed with tremendous powers of mantra and medicine plays with and delights in26 poisonous snakes, that does not cause them to lose their life. Why is that? Because they have attained the power of mantra and medicine on account of their wisdom, method, and reasoning.”
After the Bhagavat had spoken, the bodhisattva mahāsattva King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue said, “Bhagavat, the bodhisattva mahāsattva does not manifest nirvāṇa and is not stained by the faults of saṃsāra, which is marvelous, Bhagavat.[F.174.a] It is marvelous, Sugata. It is extremely marvelous, Bhagavat. It is marvelous, Sugata. Bhagavat, it is amazing. Sugata, it is amazing. I go to those bodhisattvas for refuge.
“Bhagavat, any being who hears this Dharma teaching will, at the very least, attain purity of mind, and their good roots will not be insignificant.
“Bhagavat, any noble son or noble daughter who hears this Dharma teaching taught will be prophesied to attain the highest complete awakening.”
“Noble son, it is so,” said the Bhagavat. “It is as you have said. Any noble son or noble daughter who hears this Dharma teaching taught will be prophesied to attain the highest complete awakening.”
When this Dharma teaching was taught, the minds of the five hundred bhikṣus were liberated from the defilements without further appropriation. They rose from their seats, removed their upper robes from one shoulder, and placed their right knees upon the ground. They bowed, with palms together, toward the Bhagavat, and said to the Bhagavat, “Bhagavat, the bodhisattva mahāsattvas are worthy of homage. Sugata, the bodhisattva mahāsattvas are worthy of homage.”
“Bhikṣus, it is so. It is as you have said,” replied the Bhagavat.
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these verses:
“Noble son, that is how a bodhisattva follows the Dharma in accord with the Dharma.
“Noble son, how is a bodhisattva free of pride and arrogance? Noble son, ‘pride’ means that one thinks with a sense of rivalry that one is without equal in regard to one’s class, clan, body, money,27 gold, jewels, and whatever other belongings one has, or in regard to one’s collection of elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers, and in that way one’s thoughts become inflated. That is what is meant by ‘pride.’
“ ‘Arrogance’ means that one thinks, ‘I am superior to others in regard to my class, clan, body, money,28 gold, jewels, and my abundant grain, and in regard to my collection of elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers,’ and in that way one’s thoughts become puffed up and devoid of humility. This is what is meant by ‘arrogance.’
“When a bodhisattva is free from those, they are said to be ‘free of pride and arrogance.’ ”
Then, at that time, the Bhagavat spoke these lines of verse:
“Noble son, in what way is a bodhisattva skilled in understanding teachings given with a specific intention?
“Noble son, a bodhisattva does not become attached to only the literal meaning of the profound sūtras, which are the Tathāgata’s teachings given with a specific intention. What are the Tathāgata’s teachings given with a specific intention? They are like this:
While we are not able to provide an exhaustive list of such parallels and sources here, one can consult other studies such as Tatz 1994 (pp. 71 ff.), Cutler 1997, and Strong 2012 for accounts of the Buddha’s karmic misfortunes and for references to other scholarship. Passages from The Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu, Toh 1-6), to which we have provided links in the notes to this translation, are also accompanied by numerous references to other parallels and sources. The accounts given at Lake Anavatapta in chapter 9 of The Chapter on Medicines are also told in Kṣemendra’s (ca. 970–1070
Several stories referenced in The Ten Qualities are mentioned in this account and elsewhere in The Chapter on Medicines, on which see the notes to this translation.
Blaze of Reasoning: A Commentary on “The Essence of the Middle Way” (Madhyamakahṛdayavṛttitarkajvālā, dbu ma’i snying po’i ’grel pa rtog ge ’bar ba, Toh 3856), folio 169.b.
Āryānantamukhanirhāradhāraṇīṭīkā, ’phags pa sgo mtha’ yas pas sgrib pa’i gzungs rgya cher ’grel pa (Toh 2696), folio 63.a. Jñānagarbha makes reference here to the passage in The Ten Qualities in which Māra is likened to the unruly son of an eminent merchant or householder (see milestone 1.170).
Nāgārjuna, The Collections for Awakening (*Bodhisaṃbhāra, byang chub kyi tshogs); Chinese Pu ti zi liang lun 菩提資糧論, Taishō 1660. Christian Lindtner notes that although extant only in Chinese, Nāgārjuna’s text is referenced by Butön Rinchen Drüp (1290–1364), implying the possible existence of a Tibetan translation, and that it is also quoted by both Candrakīrti and Asvabhāva; he thus considers it to be an authentic work by Nāgārjuna. Cf. Lindtner 1982, pp. 225–48.
Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, no. 33 (pp. 21–22). Adelheid Herrmann-Pfandt, probably based on Lalou’s (1939) Inventaire de Manuscrits tibétains de Touen-houng, attributes to The Ten Qualities a fragment from the Dunhuang manuscript Pelliot tibétain 91. Lalou refers questioningly to “instructions faites à Śāriputra sur les caturdharma, saptadharma ... (fragments du Daśadharmaka, Ratnakūṭa 9 ?),” and it does not seem to us that this passage in fact refers to our sūtra, which mentions neither Śāriputra nor four or seven dharmas. See Pelliot tibétain 91, International Dunhuang Programme, accessed July 8, 2025.
Here, as the object of the sixth sense faculty, which is the mind, this refers to mentally perceived phenomena.
The analogy is made here because the trunk of the plantain tree consists of concentric layers without any central pith.
Reading Stok rtse zhing dga’ mgur spyod par byed; Degé reads rtse shing dga’ la dga’ mgur spyod par byed.
The Tib. ’gron bu sometimes translates the Skt. kapardaka/kapardikā, literally meaning “cowries,” which were used as currency. It can also translate hiraṇya, which can refer to gold or any other type of currency, including cowry.
In The Chapter on Medicines (9.2445–9.2452, 9.2496–9.2497), it is told that the Buddha suffered back pain due to actions in his past life as a wrestler, in which he broke the back of and killed another wrestler due to his pride and anger. On the story of the Buddha’s backache, see also Strong 2012, p. 18 and n. 4; and Cutler 1997, pp. 71, 79 and n. 12 (for Pali sources).
In The Chapter on Medicines, 9.2338–9.2344, 9.2486–9.2487, it is said that the Buddha experienced having his foot pierced by a splinter due to having in a past life killed a fellow ship merchant with a spear. This story is recounted at length in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (folios 61.b–62.b) and The Sūtra on Skill in Means (folios 304.b–305.b), where the same account of the past life is also given. See also Strong 2012, p. 18, n. 6.
Several stories in which Devadatta attempted to harm the Buddha are mentioned very briefly in a parallel passage in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (folios 69.a–69.b) and The Sūtra on Skill in Means (folios 309.a–309.b). In the story recounted below in The Ten Qualities, Devadatta sends King Bimbisāra’s elephant Dhanapālaka to attack the Tathāgata when Devadatta was in league with Ajātaśatru, who was going to assassinate his father King Bimbisāra, the Buddha’s patron. See also Strong 2012, p. 18, n. 8; Cutler 1997, pp. 71–72.
This story is recounted in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (folios 63.b–64.b) and The Sūtra on Skill in Means (folios 306.a–306.b). In The Chapter on Medicines (4.73–4.81, 9.2345–9.2346) it is taught that the Buddha experienced receiving no alms in the brahmin village due to having in a past life, as a brahmin, slapped the alms bowl of a pratyekabuddha out of his hand. This story is also mentioned in the seventh chapter of The Sūtra on the Descent into Laṅkā and also in the Pali Piṇḍasutta (SN 4.18), where the village is called Pañcasālā (Having Five Sālā Trees) (see Bhikkhu Sujato, trans., “Piṇḍasutta,” SuttaCentral, 2018 [accessed July 14, 2025]).
In The Chapter on Medicines (9.2362–9.2367, 9.2480–9.2482) it is explained that the Buddha was slandered by the girl Cañcā due to having in a past life as a brahmin slandered an esteemed rishi out of jealousy. A brief account is also given in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (folios 64.b–65.a) and The Sūtra on Skill in Means (folio 306.b–307.a). This story is also mentioned in the seventh chapter of The Sūtra on the Descent into Laṅkā. See also Strong 2012, p. 18, n. 9; Cutler 1997, pp. 70–71. We are unable to fully explain the Tibetan translation of the girl’s name here, dregs ma, dregs (pa) meaning “arrogant” and ma suggesting a feminine name, in bram ze’i bu mo dregs ma (“the brahmin girl Cañcā”). In the Laṅkāvatārasūtra and other sources she is called cañcāmāṇavikā, māṇavikā meaning “girl.” The Tibetan translators of The Chapter on Medicines rendered cañcāmāṇavikā as bram ze’i bu mo (“brahmin girl”). Another factor to consider is that the stories of Cañcā and Sundarī (mdzes ma), two women who falsely accused the Buddha and who are both given as examples of the Buddha’s experience of karmic result, are often conflated, which could potentially account for the odd use of dregs ma here (Cutler 1997, p. 71; see also Tatz 1994, pp. 80–81).
This story is recounted in The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (folios 65.b–67.b) and in The Sūtra on Skill in Means (folios 307.a–308.a). In The Chapter on Medicines (9.2385–9.2387, 9.2491–9.2493) it is taught that the Buddha had to subsist on horse feed for three months during the rainy season due to having, during a past life as a brahmin, stated that the followers of the buddha Vipaśyin deserved to eat rotten barley. See also Strong 2012, p. 18, n. 7; Cutler 1997, p. 72.
Our translation of this paragraph is tentative; we read mchi ba as “for whom […] does not apply” in the sense that they “depart from” or “move away from” the statement. The phrase quoted here refers to the class of beings who are devoid of the potential to reach buddhahood, discussed in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra and The Sūtra on the Descent into Laṅkā (see Buswell and Lopez, s.v. “icchantika”).
In both instances of “sit down” in this sentence, we follow Stok, Yongle, and Narthang ’dug; Degé reads ’jug (“enter”).
Here and in the next sentence we read Stok, Yongle, Kangxi, Narthang, and Lhasa snyung; Degé reads the future tense bsnyung.
“The Great Way” is simply an English translation of mahāyāna (Tib. theg pa chen po). Although King Precious Moonlight of Pure Virtue uses the same term twice here, we choose to emphasize the fact that he is asking for an explanation of the term and to clarify the meaning below by occasionally using the English translation. While yāna (theg pa) is often translated as “vehicle,” here the Buddha in his response uses the analogy of a royal road, thus we translate the term according to its alternative meaning as “way.”
According to Stok, Yongle, Lithang, Kangxi, Narthang, Urga, and Lhasa lhags pa. Degé has lhag pa.
A spiritual teacher, “one who knows the conduct or practice (
The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (moha). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote.
Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,” “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.
The basic components out of which the world and the personal self are formed, usually listed as a set of five: form, sensation, ideation, formations, and consciousness.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.
In the general Mahāyāna teachings the mind of awakening (bodhicitta) is the intention to attain the complete awakening of a perfect buddha for the sake of all beings. On the level of absolute truth, the mind of awakening is the realization of the awakened state itself.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
The lowest hell, the eighth of the eight hot hells.
Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity.
In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).
The term bhikṣuṇī, often translated as “nun,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term bhikṣu (to which the female grammatical ending ṇī is added) literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist nuns and monks—like other ascetics of the time—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a bhikṣuṇī follows 364 rules and a bhikṣu follows 253 rules as part of their moral discipline.
For the first few years of the Buddha’s teachings in India, there was no ordination for women. It started at the persistent request and display of determination of Mahāprajāpatī, the Buddha’s stepmother and aunt, together with five hundred former wives of men of Kapilavastu, who had themselves become monks. Mahāprajāpatī is thus considered to be the founder of the nun’s order.
Literally the “ground” in which qualities grow like plants,
A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.
The way (yāna) of the bodhisattva, equivalent to the Mahāyāna.
A member of the highest of the four castes in Indian society, which is closely associated with religious vocations.
An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13.
Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.
An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13.
Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.
A brahmin girl who falsely accuses the Buddha Śākyamuni of impregnating her. Pali Ciñcā. See
An epithet for a bodhisattva. See “jina.”
A mental state that induces one to avoid actions that would be condemned by others. Pali
The fifth of the five aggregates.
Literally, “to flow” or “to ooze.” Mental defilements or contaminations that “flow out” toward the objects of cyclic existence, binding us to them. Vasubandhu offers two alternative explanations of this term: “They cause beings to remain (āsayanti) within saṃsāra” and “They flow from the Summit of Existence down to the Avīci hell, out of the six wounds that are the sense fields” (Abhidharmakośabhāṣya 5.40; Pradhan 1967, p. 308). The Summit of Existence (bhavāgra, srid pa’i rtse mo) is the highest point within saṃsāra, while the hell called Avīci (mnar med) is the lowest; the six sense fields (āyatana, skye mched) here refer to the five sense faculties plus the mind, i.e., the six internal sense fields.
A teaching that conveys the truth without the need for further explanation.
In the most general sense the devas—the term is cognate with the English divine—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.
A cousin of the Buddha Śākyamuni who broke with him and established his own community. He is portrayed as engendering evil schemes against the Buddha and even succeeding in wounding him. He is usually identified with wicked beings in accounts of previous lifetimes.
The elephant of King Bimbisāra who was set loose by Devadatta in order to kill the Buddha. The account is given in many Sanskrit and Pali sources, where the elephant is also called Nālāgiri and Vasupāla. The Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu, Toh 1-6) tells of his birth (10.54), while the Saṅghabhedavastu (On Schisms in the Saṅgha, Toh 1-17, folios 238.a–241.b) tells of his taming by the Buddha, followed by his death and rebirth in the Heaven of the Four Great Kings.
The fourth of the five eyes, the five superior levels of vision experienced by realized beings, the other four being the physical eye (māṃsacakṣus), the divine eye (divyacakṣus), the wisdom eye (prajñācakṣus), and the buddha eye (buddhacakṣus).
Interpreted variously—given the many connotations of both dharma and dhātu—as the realm, element, or nature of phenomena, reality, or truth. Also used as a synonym for other terms designating the ultimate. In Tibetan, instances of the Sanskrit dharmadhātu with this range of meanings (rendered chos kyi dbyings) are distinguished from instances of the same Sanskrit term with its rather different meaning related to mental perception in the context of the twelve sense fields and eighteen elements (rendered chos kyi khams).
An early term used to denote the Buddha’s teaching. “Dharma” refers to the sūtras and “Vinaya” to the rules of discipline.
Speaker or reciter of scriptures. In early Buddhism a section of the saṅgha would consist of bhāṇakas, who, particularly before the teachings were written down and were only transmitted orally, were a key factor in the preservation of the teachings. Various groups of dharmabhāṇakas specialized in memorizing and reciting a certain set of sūtras or vinaya.
Eighty of the hundred and twelve identifying physical characteristics of both buddhas and cakravartin kings, in addition to the so-called “thirty-two signs of a great being.” They are considered secondary to the thirty-two signs. They can be found listed in The Play in Full (Lalitavistara, Toh 95), 7.100.
Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.
A brahmin village in which the Buddha failed to receive alms, in some accounts due to its inhabitants being possessed by Māra. In the same episode in the Piṇḍasutta (SN 4.18), the village is called Pañcasālā or Pañcasāla (“Having Five Sālā Trees”). In The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara (Toh 82, folios 63.b–64.b) and The Sūtra on Skill in Means (Toh 261, folios 306.a–306.b), this village is called Endowed with Great Śāla Trees (
A teaching that is context-specific or requires further explanation.
Refers to the fearlessness in declaring that one has (1) awakened, (2) ceased all illusions, (3) taught the obstacles to awakening, and (4) shown the way to liberation.
The bodhisattvas’ realization that all phenomena are unproduced and empty. It sustains them on the difficult path of benefiting all beings so that they do not succumb to the goal of personal liberation. Different sources link this realization to the first or eighth bodhisattva level (bhūmi).
As the first of the five aggregates, it refers to material form.
The meaning of this term varies according to context; as the fourth of the five aggregates, it refers the entire array of bad, good, and neutral mental activities that are concomitant with the production of karmic seeds that cause and condition future saṃsāric existence.
Four qualities of the samādhi that has the activity of eliminating negative factors: aspiration, diligence, contemplation, and analysis. These are four of the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening.
A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”
The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.
According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.
The family name of Siddhārtha, who became known as the Buddha Śākyamuni. There was believed to be a patrilineal descent from the ancient Indian sage Gautama, to whom is attributed the Gautama Sūtra that prescribes entry into the homeless life as a bhikṣu with orange robes and a shaved head and alms bowl.
The Sanskrit pravrajyā literally means “going forth,” with the sense of leaving the life of a householder and embracing the life of a renunciant. When the term is applied more technically, it refers to the act of becoming a male novice (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or female novice (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma), this being a first stage leading to full ordination.
An epithet for a buddha.
chos bcu pa (Daśadharmaka). Toh 53, Degé Kangyur vol. 40 (dkon brtsegs, kha), folios 164.a–184.b.
chos bcu pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 40, pp. 460–510.
chos bcu pa. Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 36 (dkon brtsegs, kha), folios 241.b–273.a.
thabs mkhas pa’i mdo (Upāyakauśalyasūtra) [The Sūtra on Skill in Means]. Toh 261, Degé Kangyur vol. 66 (mdo sde, za), folios 283.b–310.a.
dam pa’i chos pad ma dkar po (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka). Toh 113, Degé Kangyur vol. 51 (mdo sde, ja), folios 1.b–180.b. English translation The White Lotus of the Good Dharma 2018.
byang sems ye shes dam pas zhus pa (Jñānottarabodhisattvaparipṛcchā) [The Questions of the Bodhisattva Jñānottara]. Toh 82, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 30.b–70.a.
sbyin pa’i pha rol tu phyin pa (Dānapāramitā). Toh 182, Degé Kangyur vol. 61 (mdo sde, tsa), folios 77.a–95.b. English translation The Perfection of Generosity 2019.
sman gyi gzhi (Bhaiṣajyavastu). Toh 1, ch. 6, Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 277.b–311.a; vol. 2 (’dul ba, kha), folios 1.a–317.a; and vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 1.a–50.a. English translation The Chapter on Medicines 2021.
lang kar gshegs pa’i mdo (Laṅkāvatārasūtra) [The Sūtra on the Descent into Laṅkā]. Toh 107, Degé Kangyur vol. 49 (mdo sde, ca), folios 56.a–191.b.
Bhāviveka (Bhavya). dbu ma’i snying po’i ’grel pa rtog ge ’bar ba (Madhyamakahṛdayavṛttitarkajvālā) [Blaze of Reasoning: A Commentary on “The Essence of the Middle Way”]. Toh 3856, Degé Tengyur vol. 98 (dbu ma, dza), folios 40.b–329.a.
Jñānagarbha. ’phags pa sgo mtha’ yas pas sgrub pa’i gzungs rgya cher ’grel pa (Āryānantamukhanirhāradhāraṇīṭīkā). Toh 2696, Degé Tengyur vol. 72 (rgyud ’grel, nu), folios 10.a–63.b.
Kṣemendra. byang chub sems dpa’i rtogs pa brjod pa dpag bsam gyi ’khri shing (Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā). Toh 4155, Degé Tengyur vol. 170 (mdo ’grel, khe), folios 1.b–366.a.
Śāntideva. bslab pa kun las btus pa (Śikṣāsamuccaya) [Compendium of Training]. Toh 3940, Degé Tengyur vol. 111 (mdo ’grel, dbu ma, khi), folios 3.a–194.b.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan dkar gyi chos kyi ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Toh 4364, Degé Tengyur vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Phangthangma (dkar chag ’phang thang ma). Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003.
84000. The Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu, sman gyi gzhi, Toh 1-6). Translated by the Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team. Online publication. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2021.
84000. “Heap of Jewels.” Online Knowledge Base. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2024.
84000. The Perfection of Generosity (Dānapāramitā, sbyin pa’i pha rol tu phyin pa, Toh 182). Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee. Online publication. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2019.
84000. The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, dam pa’i chos pad ma dkar po, Toh 113). Translated by Peter Alan Roberts. Online publication. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2018.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Donald S. Lopez, Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press, 2014.
Cutler, Sarah Mellick. “Still Suffering After All These Aeons: The Continuing Effects of the Buddha’s Bad Karma.” In Indian Insights: Buddhism, Brahmanism and Bhakti: Papers from the Annual Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, edited by Peter Connolly and Sue Hamilton. London: Luzac Oriental, 1997.
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Śikṣāsamuccaya. GRETIL edition input by Mirek Rozehnahl, July 31, 2020.
Strong, John S. “Explicating the Buddha’s Final Illness in the Context of His Other Ailments: The Making and Unmaking of Some Jātaka Tales.” Buddhist Studies Review 29, no. 1 (2012): 17–33.
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