The subject matter of this sūtra is indicated by the alternative title suggested by the Buddha himself in its conclusion: The Teaching That Clarifies Karma. In the opening section, the merchant Pratibhānamati, concerned about the state of society and what will become of the saṅgha in times to come, requests the Buddha Śākyamuni for a teaching that offers moral guidance to future beings. With the Buddha’s encouragement, he asks what actions lead to rebirth in ten different human and non-human states. The Buddha answers with descriptions of the actions associated with each of these states and the effects they will bring. Pratibhānamati then invites the Buddha to his home in Śrāvastī. Two beggars arrive there, and on account of their opposing aspirations and conduct in the presence of the Buddha and retinue, one soon becomes a king while the other is killed in an accident. The sūtra concludes as the Buddha, invited to the newly anointed king’s land, explains the karmic reasons for his unexpected fortune.
Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the guidance of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. The translation was produced by Timothy Hinkle, who also wrote the introduction. Ryan Damron and Andreas Doctor checked the translation against the Tibetan and edited the text. Tulku Tenzin Rigsang also assisted in resolving several difficult passages.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
In this sūtra the Buddha Śākyamuni gives a teaching on the workings of karma, the relationships between actions and their effects. The setting for the teaching is Jeta’s Grove near the city of Śrāvastī, which the benefactor Anāthapiṇḍada donated to the Buddha at great expense. Prompted by questions posed by the merchant Pratibhānamati, who is concerned that monastics may indulge in hypocritical behavior in the future during degenerate times, the Buddha elucidates the actions that cause rebirth in ten possible states of existence: as a god, a human, a hell being, an animal, a hungry spirit, a high-caste human, a slave, a fortunate human, an unfortunate human, or a human on the Buddhist path. Additionally, he describes the physical, verbal, and mental traits associated with each of those rebirths. These illustrate the doctrine, shared by most Indian religions, that beings’ good or bad deeds determine their future modes of birth and existence. In this way, the sūtra provides a moral framework geared toward the whole of society established on the basis of karma theory.
Following the discourse, Pratibhānamati invites the Buddha to his home for the midday meal. As a final illustration of the law of karma, we are introduced to two beggars who seat themselves among the saṅgha when the midday meal is being served. One of them does not observe the proper etiquette of ensuring honored guests are served first and thus is not served anything to eat or drink. Enraged, he leaves, harboring a very negative judgment of the assembly and perversely vowing revenge. As a result, he soon suffers an unfortunate death followed by millions of eons in hell. The other beggar, however, observes proper etiquette and is served abundant food and drink. He entertains a virtuous aspiration to serve the Buddha and his assembly for an entire week. The effect of this noble wish is that he soon becomes the king of a neighboring land whose ruler has perished without an appropriate heir. He is astounded at his sudden reversal of fortune and seeks to understand its source. Through the blessings of the Buddha he realizes how his past actions determined his current fortune. He therefore invites the Buddha and the saṅgha and serves them just as he had aspired to do. The Buddha delivers a teaching that propels the king to the state of a stream enterer. The sūtra concludes with the audience praising the Buddha and rejoicing in his teaching. Through its descriptions and examples of the workings of karma, the sūtra underscores the importance and benefits of upholding core Buddhist virtues of kindness, gratitude, generosity, honesty, and respect, while warning of the grave consequences awaiting those who do the opposite.
To our knowledge there is no extant Sanskrit version of this sūtra. It was, however, translated into Chinese (Taishō 544) by Fa Chang 法場 during the early sixth century
[F.331.b]Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was residing in Śrāvastī, in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. He was there together with a great saṅgha of 1,250 monks as well as 10,000 bodhisattvas. Surrounded and revered by an immense retinue, the Blessed One taught the Dharma.
At that time, the merchant Pratibhānamati left the city of Śrāvastī, surrounded and venerated[F.332.a] by a group of five hundred merchant’s sons, each of whom was also accompanied by an entourage of five hundred servants. As they arrived in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park, where the Blessed One was residing, Pratibhānamati bowed his head at the Blessed One’s feet, circumambulated him three times, and sat down together with his entourage.
At this point, through the power of the Buddha, the merchant Pratibhānamati stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, and knelt on his right knee. With palms together he bowed toward the Blessed One and said, “Blessed One, you are the supreme teacher, the most eminent in the three realms, the exalted ground for the merit of awakening, the one who liberates all beings, and the one who brings about the attainment of unbounded skill in all-pervasive methods. Thus, Blessed One, in times to come, during the degenerate age when the five polluting degenerations manifest, the three poisons will burn and blaze forth. Then, among those beings who inflict misery on one another there will be people with evil intentions. At that time, there will be no leader, nor anyone of this kind, and kings and high ministers will be overcome by craving for objects, leading them to quarrel and wage war against each other. When they wage war against each other, their armies of soldiers as well as the remaining civilian population will be ravaged so that not even their names will remain.
“Through the power of the Buddha’s merit, many among the four types of the Buddha’s disciples will enter the teachings and take on the guise of monks. Yet even these people will only outwardly be cloaked in saffron robes, while inwardly they will be angry, disrespectful, disharmonious, and slanderous toward one another. They will advertise the faults of others and downplay their positive qualities. They will be overcome by pride,[F.332.b] conceit, and haughtiness, and will cling to the belief in me and mine. When they pass on, they will be born into the lower realms, and they will not find even a moment of fortune. In their future lives they will again encounter many eons of the terrible experiences of suffering and of harshness, heat, and displeasure.
“On account of that, Blessed One, what are the teachings that will ripen them, turn them back from the paths leading to the lower realms, and enable them to attain the celestial palace due to their merit?”
The Blessed One answered Pratibhānamati, “Pratibhānamati, with this lion’s roar, you have asked the Thus-Gone One a question. This sort of request for the Dharma of the Thus-Gone One stirs delight in all beings. Excellent, excellent! Pratibhānamati, what attainment would make beings truly splendorous, cause them to abandon the dark side, make them join the good side, and accomplish all aims? You should ask about such a teaching. Having done so, you must then listen without doubt and I shall explain.”
Pratibhānamati then inquired of the Blessed One, “Blessed One, through what deeds is one reborn among the class of gods? Through what actions is one reborn among the class of humans? Through what actions is one reborn among hell beings? Through what actions is one reborn among the animals? Through what actions is one reborn among the hungry spirits? Through what actions is one reborn among the high castes? Through what actions is one reborn in servitude? Blessed One, through what actions does one become a fortunate being among humans—someone who has servants, pleasant breath, a nice complexion,[F.333.a] who is a joy to behold, who faces no harm, who is contented in body and mind, and praised by many people? Having already attained the excellent human state among beings, through what actions does one meet with constant slander, face the enmity of many beings, have an ugly appearance and bad breath, face all sorts of adversity, have a joyless mind and an unhealthy body, and indulge in all kinds of negative actions?
“Blessed One, through what actions will those who have taken ordination in this well-spoken Dharma-Vinaya, as a mendicant or a noble son or daughter who values peace, never part from the Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha throughout their lifetimes and wherever they may be? Through what actions will they behold the blessed buddhas, receive the Dharma from them, delight in it, and accomplish the aims they have set their minds on?
“Given these ten questions of mine, please, Blessed One, spiritual teacher who acts without being requested, who is endowed with great compassion and power, and who discerns all phenomena with unclouded eyes, answer them extensively as a remedy for the innumerable malignant forces.”
The Blessed One replied, “Pratibhānamati, I will extensively address and answer your questions, just as you have asked them. Listen well!”
The merchant Pratibhānamati responded, “Blessed One, I shall do that,” and he listened as the Blessed One had instructed.
The Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions attain rebirth as gods. What are these five? (1) First, with loving minds they do no harm to beings but instead protect them and are patient. (2) They give generously since they are not stingy and do not steal the possessions of others.[F.333.b] (3) They guard all the bases of training given that those who enjoy themselves with the wives of others are impure. (4) They naturally maintain diligence in the purification ceremony and speak the truth. (5) In order to give up their own limitless faults, they forsake intoxicating beverages. Beings who engage in these five actions attain divine bodies.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among humans. What are these five? (1) First, they give with gratitude and provide for the poor, the destitute, and the miserable. (2) They follow the path of the ten virtues without fail. (3) They are patient, harboring no hostility toward anyone. (4) They diligently inspire lazy beings to the virtuous Dharma. (5) With a determined mind, they maintain harmony. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions attain human lives and grow very wealthy, long lived, beautiful, and majestic, and become lords of the world.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among hell beings, where they remain for millions of eons. What are these five? (1) They have no faith in the Jewels of the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha. They disparage them through unflattering speech and belittle the path of noble beings. (2) They destroy the stūpas of the thus-gone ones. (3) In the intermediate times as well, they are extremely disrespectful and disharmonious with monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen, but love having worldly conversations. (4) They steal donations made to the Three Jewels. (5) Through their disparaging words that enrage others, they are disrespectful and create discord between kings, leaders, ministers, fathers, and sons.
“In the future, those monks who enter into the teachings of the thus-gone ones, who follow the teacher—the thus-gone, worthy, perfect Buddha—and go forth from the home into homelessness, will pass themselves off as monks yet not maintain the genuine practice of the virtuous Dharma. They will not maintain harmony but will displease their preceptors and instructors and speak harshly. Even though they have been taught correctly, they will not practice those teachings. They will spurn the awakening of the buddhas, praise themselves, and slander[F.335.a] others. For the most part, they will be proud, conceited, and haughty, and will denigrate spiritual teachers. They will yearn for praise and respect but disparage others.
“Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in those five actions will be reborn among the hell beings where they will remain until the trichiliocosm is destroyed. Even when it is destroyed, they will be propelled into other world-systems in which there are hells. When those world-systems are also destroyed, they will be further propelled into still other world-systems in which there are hells. And so, on and on, they will wander amidst all the countless world-systems of hells, and their experience of suffering will find no end.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among animals. What are these five? (1) The first is corrupt discipline. The others are (2) robbery and theft, (3) taking loans from others and then conspiring against them, (4) murder, and (5) lacking faith, which makes one delight in studying something other than the sublime Dharma and relish perverted ways of life because of finding such studies enjoyable. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions are reborn as animals.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn as hungry spirits. What are these five? (1) The first is being stingy and craving. (2) Next, because they esteem extremely ignorant spiritual teachers and their ilk, they block their own happiness. (3) Because they are inclined to unwholesome ways, they are jealous. (4) Because they are excessively stingy, they are in no way generous towards brothers, sisters, children, wives, servants, laborers, wageworkers, friends, government officials, kinfolk, relatives, the venerable, mendicants, priests, and the poor. They cannot even give anything to their own mothers and fathers, nor do they care for those who are in need of care. (5) They are also not respectful, nor do they venerate spiritual teachers or regard them as precious. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions are reborn as hungry spirits.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among the higher castes. What are these five? They are (1) giving material goods and Dharma, (2) not having hostility towards anyone, (3) being respectful of the Three Jewels and one’s parents, (4) being naturally patient, gentle, and exalted, and (5) studying the diversity of the Buddha’s teachings and being diligent in their recitation. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in those five actions are reborn among the higher castes.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions become male and female servants. What are these five? They are (1) being disrespectful toward one’s parents, (2) having an indecent mind, (3) being incorrigible and engaging in evil deeds as one pleases, (4) stealing the wealth of others, and (5) absconding with the loans one has taken and going into hiding. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions become male and female servants.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions become supremely fortunate, have servants and fragrant breath, are unthreatened, pliant in body and mind, beautiful to behold, and praised by many beings. What are these five? They are: (1) perceiving accurately, genuinely, and completely; (2) speaking without exaggeration; (3) not lacking patience towards the nature of the language used in the three vehicles of hearers, solitary buddhas, and bodhisattvas, nor denigrating nor abandoning it but instead retaining, teaching, reading, and reciting it, abandoning the limitless instances of the four faults of speech, and not belittling the path of noble beings; (4) loving and nurturing those beings who persist in counterproductive actions, turning them away from faults, and establishing them in virtue; and (5) not wishing to expose the faults one sees in others. Pratibhānamati, when beings who engage in these five actions are reborn among humans, they possess great fortune, acquire servants, fragrant breath, and mental vigor, are agreeable, and delight many beings. They are without anguish, and their minds are at ease. They are free of anger and do not encounter harm. They obtain a beautiful appearance and are honored.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions attain sublime human lives, and yet they also receive constant denigration, are disliked by many beings, have bad breath and unhappy minds, are often threatened, and have very unfit bodies. What are these five? They are (1) lying, (2) being always bent on deceiving others through lying, (3) criticizing the discourses one hears when assembled to hear great Dharma talks, (4) abusing and denigrating those whose practice pure conduct, and (5) cultivating a base mind. Pratibhānamati, beings who are endowed[F.338.b] with those five actions may attain the preeminence of a human life but they receive constant denigration, are disliked by many beings, are ugly, have bad breath and unhappy minds, are often threatened, and have bodies that are unhealthy.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, mendicants and noble sons and daughters—beings who make peace their primary concern—possess five qualities that ensure that they will always encounter the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha, regardless of where they are born. They will behold the blessed buddhas, hear the Dharma from them, and be delighted.[F.339.a] They will attain awakening just as intended and gain abundance just as desired. What are these five qualities? (1) Having themselves gone for refuge in the Three Jewels, they establish others in the practice of going for refuge. (2) They skillfully create images of the thus-gone ones that are complete and detailed in all respects. (3) They recognize preceptors and teachers and are respectful towards them. (4) They easily follow instructions and practice them accordingly. (5) With pervasive and unimpeded light rays, they behold all beings as being like themselves or like their only child. These are beings who practice, read, recite, transmit, and explain the discourses exactly as they were set forth. Their contemplation is extensive. Being utterly free from obstacles, they are enthusiastic in their practice and gain accomplishment. Pratibhānamati, mendicants and noble sons and daughters—beings who make peace their primary concern—who possess those five qualities, do not encounter obstacles and are never disconnected from the Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, regardless of where they are born. They behold the blessed buddhas, hear their Dharma teachings, and are delighted. They attain awakening just as they intend and gain abundance just as they wish.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
As he heard this Dharma teaching, the merchant Pratibhānamati was satisfied and content. He rejoiced and was truly delighted. Joyful and happy, he gained the acceptance that phenomena are unborn. The five hundred merchant children and each of their entourage of five hundred attained the unclouded and stainless Dharma eye that perceives all phenomena.
All the gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, and non-humans assembled in the retinue of the Blessed One developed a motivation for one of the vehicles in accord with their inclinations. They abundantly gained whatever they wished for and scattered incalculable masses of flowers, incense, garlands, clothing, and jewelry toward the Blessed One.
Then, the merchant Pratibhānamati stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, and knelt on his right knee. With palms together he bowed toward the Blessed One and said,
“Blessed One, the masters of the three realms teach these five qualities. Excellent. Excellent. Hearing about these five qualities, this retinue has understood the meaning, just as is intended.[F.340.a] When beings in future times hear of this teaching, they will abandon non-virtue, do what is virtuous, and take up religious practice.
“Blessed One, please come together with your saṅgha of monks to my home. Please accept this invitation out of compassion for us.”
The Blessed One agreed out of compassion for the merchant Pratibhānamati. Knowing that the Blessed One had accepted his invitation, Pratibhānamati was satisfied and content. He rejoiced and was truly delighted. Happy and joyful, he bowed his head to the feet of the Blessed One, circumambulated him three times, and departed together with his retinue.
When he arrived home, he bowed to the feet of his parents and told them with joined palms, “Father, Mother, I have something to tell you. I have invited he who is rare and supreme in the world, the unsurpassed being, the king of Dharma, he who has transcended the three realms, the Blessed One himself, to come and take his midday meal here with his congregation of monks. Out of compassion for us, he has accepted!”
Pratibhānamati’s father and mother were delighted and praised him, “Son, that is excellent! You have done well!” They were excited to venerate the Thus-Gone One.
Pratibhānamati then instructed his wife Padma and her servants, “My dear, please prepare fine food and drink with many hundreds of flavors for the blessed, thus-gone, worthy, perfect Buddha and his retinue. Once the food has been prepared, scatter water, sweep the house, set up the canopies, hang the silken tassels, scatter flower petals,[F.340.b] and perfume the environment with fragrant incense. Lay out seats befitting the Thus-Gone One and his congregation of monks. Once he has been received and the offerings laid before him at his feet, you should invite the sublime Blessed One to take his seat.”
Pratibhānamati came together with friends, dignitaries, kin, and elders, and they all did exactly as he said. The next morning the Blessed One left Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park, and traveled together with the saṅgha of monks to Śrāvastī out of kindness for beings. They did so accompanied by miraculous displays manifested by the Thus-Gone One’s splendid magical powers. Gradually they made their way to Pratibhānamati’s home.
Pratibhānamati and his entourage greeted the Blessed One, received him as a guest, made offerings at his feet, and bowed their heads to his feet. He then entered the home along with his entourage. The Blessed One sat on an excellent cushion, which befitted him, and the congregation of monks took their appropriate seats. Pratibhānamati’s parents, close friends, friends, dignitaries, relatives, and elders were delighted and bowed down; they paid respect to the master and with great affection began to serve the Blessed One and the assembly of monks. Pratibhānamati, holding a bowl filled with flowers and scented water, sat in front of the Teacher.
At that time, two friends in anguish came to Pratibhānamati’s home. One of them sat among the saṅgha. However, as he did not ask all the monks whether he could partake of their food and drink[F.341.a] and, moreover, the Blessed One had not offered the meal prayer, nobody gave him anything. He became enraged and left, thinking, “Ah, nobody has given anything at all to me, the victim. These are terrible mendicants. Their minds are not peaceful, they have no compassion, and neither do they have loving minds. Giving to them is fruitless. Only foolish sponsors would give to that sort. If I were king, I would slice off all their heads with an iron disc.”
The other fellow, however, inquired whether the monks had abundant food and drink, and he approached after the Buddha had offered the meal prayer. He then received a satisfying abundance of food and drink, and was deeply contented. He went outside and thought, “Ah! These great mendicants who have given me, a sufferer, a satisfying abundance of food and drink are compassionate. They have peaceful minds and loving characters. This will satisfy me for a full week. It is a wise and fine patron who gives to such excellent objects of generosity. Such generosity bears great fruit. Excellent! If I were king, I would honor the saṅgha of monks, including the Buddha, through all means of service for seven days. May it be so!”
Then the Blessed One was served the midday meal. He cleaned his bowl, washed his hands, and then spoke to Venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, henceforth speak well of those who do not take food and drink.” Pratibhānamati and his entourage sat in front of the Blessed One, who gave them a delightful,[F.341.b] praiseworthy, applicable, and lucid Dharma talk that produced roots of virtue in a multitude of beings. Then he rose from his seat and went back to Jeta’s Grove.
Then, those two anguished men wandered about and thus ended up taking rest in different parts of the land. As they laid down, a canopy of clouds filled with lightning and wind hovered in the sky above the meritorious one, thus shading him. At that time, the king of that country passed away. Since there was no one else in the region who had sufficient royal qualities to be entrusted with the country, the citizens, including the merchants, townspeople, village folk, high ministers, ministers, guards, and retainers diligently inquired among diviners, soothsayers, and those skilled in the movements of the stars and planets as to who should become their king. The reply was, “There is a poor man who is qualified. He should become king.”
The subject matter of this sūtra is indicated by the alternative title suggested by the Buddha himself in its conclusion: The Teaching That Clarifies Karma. In the opening section, the merchant Pratibhānamati, concerned about the state of society and what will become of the saṅgha in times to come, requests the Buddha Śākyamuni for a teaching that offers moral guidance to future beings. With the Buddha’s encouragement, he asks what actions lead to rebirth in ten different human and non-human states. The Buddha answers with descriptions of the actions associated with each of these states and the effects they will bring. Pratibhānamati then invites the Buddha to his home in Śrāvastī. Two beggars arrive there, and on account of their opposing aspirations and conduct in the presence of the Buddha and retinue, one soon becomes a king while the other is killed in an accident. The sūtra concludes as the Buddha, invited to the newly anointed king’s land, explains the karmic reasons for his unexpected fortune.
Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the guidance of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. The translation was produced by Timothy Hinkle, who also wrote the introduction. Ryan Damron and Andreas Doctor checked the translation against the Tibetan and edited the text. Tulku Tenzin Rigsang also assisted in resolving several difficult passages.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
In this sūtra the Buddha Śākyamuni gives a teaching on the workings of karma, the relationships between actions and their effects. The setting for the teaching is Jeta’s Grove near the city of Śrāvastī, which the benefactor Anāthapiṇḍada donated to the Buddha at great expense. Prompted by questions posed by the merchant Pratibhānamati, who is concerned that monastics may indulge in hypocritical behavior in the future during degenerate times, the Buddha elucidates the actions that cause rebirth in ten possible states of existence: as a god, a human, a hell being, an animal, a hungry spirit, a high-caste human, a slave, a fortunate human, an unfortunate human, or a human on the Buddhist path. Additionally, he describes the physical, verbal, and mental traits associated with each of those rebirths. These illustrate the doctrine, shared by most Indian religions, that beings’ good or bad deeds determine their future modes of birth and existence. In this way, the sūtra provides a moral framework geared toward the whole of society established on the basis of karma theory.
Following the discourse, Pratibhānamati invites the Buddha to his home for the midday meal. As a final illustration of the law of karma, we are introduced to two beggars who seat themselves among the saṅgha when the midday meal is being served. One of them does not observe the proper etiquette of ensuring honored guests are served first and thus is not served anything to eat or drink. Enraged, he leaves, harboring a very negative judgment of the assembly and perversely vowing revenge. As a result, he soon suffers an unfortunate death followed by millions of eons in hell. The other beggar, however, observes proper etiquette and is served abundant food and drink. He entertains a virtuous aspiration to serve the Buddha and his assembly for an entire week. The effect of this noble wish is that he soon becomes the king of a neighboring land whose ruler has perished without an appropriate heir. He is astounded at his sudden reversal of fortune and seeks to understand its source. Through the blessings of the Buddha he realizes how his past actions determined his current fortune. He therefore invites the Buddha and the saṅgha and serves them just as he had aspired to do. The Buddha delivers a teaching that propels the king to the state of a stream enterer. The sūtra concludes with the audience praising the Buddha and rejoicing in his teaching. Through its descriptions and examples of the workings of karma, the sūtra underscores the importance and benefits of upholding core Buddhist virtues of kindness, gratitude, generosity, honesty, and respect, while warning of the grave consequences awaiting those who do the opposite.
To our knowledge there is no extant Sanskrit version of this sūtra. It was, however, translated into Chinese (Taishō 544) by Fa Chang 法場 during the early sixth century
[F.331.b]Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was residing in Śrāvastī, in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. He was there together with a great saṅgha of 1,250 monks as well as 10,000 bodhisattvas. Surrounded and revered by an immense retinue, the Blessed One taught the Dharma.
At that time, the merchant Pratibhānamati left the city of Śrāvastī, surrounded and venerated[F.332.a] by a group of five hundred merchant’s sons, each of whom was also accompanied by an entourage of five hundred servants. As they arrived in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park, where the Blessed One was residing, Pratibhānamati bowed his head at the Blessed One’s feet, circumambulated him three times, and sat down together with his entourage.
At this point, through the power of the Buddha, the merchant Pratibhānamati stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, and knelt on his right knee. With palms together he bowed toward the Blessed One and said, “Blessed One, you are the supreme teacher, the most eminent in the three realms, the exalted ground for the merit of awakening, the one who liberates all beings, and the one who brings about the attainment of unbounded skill in all-pervasive methods. Thus, Blessed One, in times to come, during the degenerate age when the five polluting degenerations manifest, the three poisons will burn and blaze forth. Then, among those beings who inflict misery on one another there will be people with evil intentions. At that time, there will be no leader, nor anyone of this kind, and kings and high ministers will be overcome by craving for objects, leading them to quarrel and wage war against each other. When they wage war against each other, their armies of soldiers as well as the remaining civilian population will be ravaged so that not even their names will remain.
“Through the power of the Buddha’s merit, many among the four types of the Buddha’s disciples will enter the teachings and take on the guise of monks. Yet even these people will only outwardly be cloaked in saffron robes, while inwardly they will be angry, disrespectful, disharmonious, and slanderous toward one another. They will advertise the faults of others and downplay their positive qualities. They will be overcome by pride,[F.332.b] conceit, and haughtiness, and will cling to the belief in me and mine. When they pass on, they will be born into the lower realms, and they will not find even a moment of fortune. In their future lives they will again encounter many eons of the terrible experiences of suffering and of harshness, heat, and displeasure.
“On account of that, Blessed One, what are the teachings that will ripen them, turn them back from the paths leading to the lower realms, and enable them to attain the celestial palace due to their merit?”
The Blessed One answered Pratibhānamati, “Pratibhānamati, with this lion’s roar, you have asked the Thus-Gone One a question. This sort of request for the Dharma of the Thus-Gone One stirs delight in all beings. Excellent, excellent! Pratibhānamati, what attainment would make beings truly splendorous, cause them to abandon the dark side, make them join the good side, and accomplish all aims? You should ask about such a teaching. Having done so, you must then listen without doubt and I shall explain.”
Pratibhānamati then inquired of the Blessed One, “Blessed One, through what deeds is one reborn among the class of gods? Through what actions is one reborn among the class of humans? Through what actions is one reborn among hell beings? Through what actions is one reborn among the animals? Through what actions is one reborn among the hungry spirits? Through what actions is one reborn among the high castes? Through what actions is one reborn in servitude? Blessed One, through what actions does one become a fortunate being among humans—someone who has servants, pleasant breath, a nice complexion,[F.333.a] who is a joy to behold, who faces no harm, who is contented in body and mind, and praised by many people? Having already attained the excellent human state among beings, through what actions does one meet with constant slander, face the enmity of many beings, have an ugly appearance and bad breath, face all sorts of adversity, have a joyless mind and an unhealthy body, and indulge in all kinds of negative actions?
“Blessed One, through what actions will those who have taken ordination in this well-spoken Dharma-Vinaya, as a mendicant or a noble son or daughter who values peace, never part from the Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha throughout their lifetimes and wherever they may be? Through what actions will they behold the blessed buddhas, receive the Dharma from them, delight in it, and accomplish the aims they have set their minds on?
“Given these ten questions of mine, please, Blessed One, spiritual teacher who acts without being requested, who is endowed with great compassion and power, and who discerns all phenomena with unclouded eyes, answer them extensively as a remedy for the innumerable malignant forces.”
The Blessed One replied, “Pratibhānamati, I will extensively address and answer your questions, just as you have asked them. Listen well!”
The merchant Pratibhānamati responded, “Blessed One, I shall do that,” and he listened as the Blessed One had instructed.
The Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions attain rebirth as gods. What are these five? (1) First, with loving minds they do no harm to beings but instead protect them and are patient. (2) They give generously since they are not stingy and do not steal the possessions of others.[F.333.b] (3) They guard all the bases of training given that those who enjoy themselves with the wives of others are impure. (4) They naturally maintain diligence in the purification ceremony and speak the truth. (5) In order to give up their own limitless faults, they forsake intoxicating beverages. Beings who engage in these five actions attain divine bodies.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among humans. What are these five? (1) First, they give with gratitude and provide for the poor, the destitute, and the miserable. (2) They follow the path of the ten virtues without fail. (3) They are patient, harboring no hostility toward anyone. (4) They diligently inspire lazy beings to the virtuous Dharma. (5) With a determined mind, they maintain harmony. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions attain human lives and grow very wealthy, long lived, beautiful, and majestic, and become lords of the world.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among hell beings, where they remain for millions of eons. What are these five? (1) They have no faith in the Jewels of the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha. They disparage them through unflattering speech and belittle the path of noble beings. (2) They destroy the stūpas of the thus-gone ones. (3) In the intermediate times as well, they are extremely disrespectful and disharmonious with monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen, but love having worldly conversations. (4) They steal donations made to the Three Jewels. (5) Through their disparaging words that enrage others, they are disrespectful and create discord between kings, leaders, ministers, fathers, and sons.
“In the future, those monks who enter into the teachings of the thus-gone ones, who follow the teacher—the thus-gone, worthy, perfect Buddha—and go forth from the home into homelessness, will pass themselves off as monks yet not maintain the genuine practice of the virtuous Dharma. They will not maintain harmony but will displease their preceptors and instructors and speak harshly. Even though they have been taught correctly, they will not practice those teachings. They will spurn the awakening of the buddhas, praise themselves, and slander[F.335.a] others. For the most part, they will be proud, conceited, and haughty, and will denigrate spiritual teachers. They will yearn for praise and respect but disparage others.
“Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in those five actions will be reborn among the hell beings where they will remain until the trichiliocosm is destroyed. Even when it is destroyed, they will be propelled into other world-systems in which there are hells. When those world-systems are also destroyed, they will be further propelled into still other world-systems in which there are hells. And so, on and on, they will wander amidst all the countless world-systems of hells, and their experience of suffering will find no end.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among animals. What are these five? (1) The first is corrupt discipline. The others are (2) robbery and theft, (3) taking loans from others and then conspiring against them, (4) murder, and (5) lacking faith, which makes one delight in studying something other than the sublime Dharma and relish perverted ways of life because of finding such studies enjoyable. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions are reborn as animals.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn as hungry spirits. What are these five? (1) The first is being stingy and craving. (2) Next, because they esteem extremely ignorant spiritual teachers and their ilk, they block their own happiness. (3) Because they are inclined to unwholesome ways, they are jealous. (4) Because they are excessively stingy, they are in no way generous towards brothers, sisters, children, wives, servants, laborers, wageworkers, friends, government officials, kinfolk, relatives, the venerable, mendicants, priests, and the poor. They cannot even give anything to their own mothers and fathers, nor do they care for those who are in need of care. (5) They are also not respectful, nor do they venerate spiritual teachers or regard them as precious. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions are reborn as hungry spirits.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions are reborn among the higher castes. What are these five? They are (1) giving material goods and Dharma, (2) not having hostility towards anyone, (3) being respectful of the Three Jewels and one’s parents, (4) being naturally patient, gentle, and exalted, and (5) studying the diversity of the Buddha’s teachings and being diligent in their recitation. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in those five actions are reborn among the higher castes.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions become male and female servants. What are these five? They are (1) being disrespectful toward one’s parents, (2) having an indecent mind, (3) being incorrigible and engaging in evil deeds as one pleases, (4) stealing the wealth of others, and (5) absconding with the loans one has taken and going into hiding. Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in these five actions become male and female servants.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions become supremely fortunate, have servants and fragrant breath, are unthreatened, pliant in body and mind, beautiful to behold, and praised by many beings. What are these five? They are: (1) perceiving accurately, genuinely, and completely; (2) speaking without exaggeration; (3) not lacking patience towards the nature of the language used in the three vehicles of hearers, solitary buddhas, and bodhisattvas, nor denigrating nor abandoning it but instead retaining, teaching, reading, and reciting it, abandoning the limitless instances of the four faults of speech, and not belittling the path of noble beings; (4) loving and nurturing those beings who persist in counterproductive actions, turning them away from faults, and establishing them in virtue; and (5) not wishing to expose the faults one sees in others. Pratibhānamati, when beings who engage in these five actions are reborn among humans, they possess great fortune, acquire servants, fragrant breath, and mental vigor, are agreeable, and delight many beings. They are without anguish, and their minds are at ease. They are free of anger and do not encounter harm. They obtain a beautiful appearance and are honored.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, beings who engage in the following five actions attain sublime human lives, and yet they also receive constant denigration, are disliked by many beings, have bad breath and unhappy minds, are often threatened, and have very unfit bodies. What are these five? They are (1) lying, (2) being always bent on deceiving others through lying, (3) criticizing the discourses one hears when assembled to hear great Dharma talks, (4) abusing and denigrating those whose practice pure conduct, and (5) cultivating a base mind. Pratibhānamati, beings who are endowed[F.338.b] with those five actions may attain the preeminence of a human life but they receive constant denigration, are disliked by many beings, are ugly, have bad breath and unhappy minds, are often threatened, and have bodies that are unhealthy.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
Then the Blessed One said, “Pratibhānamati, mendicants and noble sons and daughters—beings who make peace their primary concern—possess five qualities that ensure that they will always encounter the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha, regardless of where they are born. They will behold the blessed buddhas, hear the Dharma from them, and be delighted.[F.339.a] They will attain awakening just as intended and gain abundance just as desired. What are these five qualities? (1) Having themselves gone for refuge in the Three Jewels, they establish others in the practice of going for refuge. (2) They skillfully create images of the thus-gone ones that are complete and detailed in all respects. (3) They recognize preceptors and teachers and are respectful towards them. (4) They easily follow instructions and practice them accordingly. (5) With pervasive and unimpeded light rays, they behold all beings as being like themselves or like their only child. These are beings who practice, read, recite, transmit, and explain the discourses exactly as they were set forth. Their contemplation is extensive. Being utterly free from obstacles, they are enthusiastic in their practice and gain accomplishment. Pratibhānamati, mendicants and noble sons and daughters—beings who make peace their primary concern—who possess those five qualities, do not encounter obstacles and are never disconnected from the Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, regardless of where they are born. They behold the blessed buddhas, hear their Dharma teachings, and are delighted. They attain awakening just as they intend and gain abundance just as they wish.”
Then the Blessed One expressed this in verse:
As he heard this Dharma teaching, the merchant Pratibhānamati was satisfied and content. He rejoiced and was truly delighted. Joyful and happy, he gained the acceptance that phenomena are unborn. The five hundred merchant children and each of their entourage of five hundred attained the unclouded and stainless Dharma eye that perceives all phenomena.
All the gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, and non-humans assembled in the retinue of the Blessed One developed a motivation for one of the vehicles in accord with their inclinations. They abundantly gained whatever they wished for and scattered incalculable masses of flowers, incense, garlands, clothing, and jewelry toward the Blessed One.
Then, the merchant Pratibhānamati stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, and knelt on his right knee. With palms together he bowed toward the Blessed One and said,
“Blessed One, the masters of the three realms teach these five qualities. Excellent. Excellent. Hearing about these five qualities, this retinue has understood the meaning, just as is intended.[F.340.a] When beings in future times hear of this teaching, they will abandon non-virtue, do what is virtuous, and take up religious practice.
“Blessed One, please come together with your saṅgha of monks to my home. Please accept this invitation out of compassion for us.”
The Blessed One agreed out of compassion for the merchant Pratibhānamati. Knowing that the Blessed One had accepted his invitation, Pratibhānamati was satisfied and content. He rejoiced and was truly delighted. Happy and joyful, he bowed his head to the feet of the Blessed One, circumambulated him three times, and departed together with his retinue.
When he arrived home, he bowed to the feet of his parents and told them with joined palms, “Father, Mother, I have something to tell you. I have invited he who is rare and supreme in the world, the unsurpassed being, the king of Dharma, he who has transcended the three realms, the Blessed One himself, to come and take his midday meal here with his congregation of monks. Out of compassion for us, he has accepted!”
Pratibhānamati’s father and mother were delighted and praised him, “Son, that is excellent! You have done well!” They were excited to venerate the Thus-Gone One.
Pratibhānamati then instructed his wife Padma and her servants, “My dear, please prepare fine food and drink with many hundreds of flavors for the blessed, thus-gone, worthy, perfect Buddha and his retinue. Once the food has been prepared, scatter water, sweep the house, set up the canopies, hang the silken tassels, scatter flower petals,[F.340.b] and perfume the environment with fragrant incense. Lay out seats befitting the Thus-Gone One and his congregation of monks. Once he has been received and the offerings laid before him at his feet, you should invite the sublime Blessed One to take his seat.”
Pratibhānamati came together with friends, dignitaries, kin, and elders, and they all did exactly as he said. The next morning the Blessed One left Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park, and traveled together with the saṅgha of monks to Śrāvastī out of kindness for beings. They did so accompanied by miraculous displays manifested by the Thus-Gone One’s splendid magical powers. Gradually they made their way to Pratibhānamati’s home.
Pratibhānamati and his entourage greeted the Blessed One, received him as a guest, made offerings at his feet, and bowed their heads to his feet. He then entered the home along with his entourage. The Blessed One sat on an excellent cushion, which befitted him, and the congregation of monks took their appropriate seats. Pratibhānamati’s parents, close friends, friends, dignitaries, relatives, and elders were delighted and bowed down; they paid respect to the master and with great affection began to serve the Blessed One and the assembly of monks. Pratibhānamati, holding a bowl filled with flowers and scented water, sat in front of the Teacher.
At that time, two friends in anguish came to Pratibhānamati’s home. One of them sat among the saṅgha. However, as he did not ask all the monks whether he could partake of their food and drink[F.341.a] and, moreover, the Blessed One had not offered the meal prayer, nobody gave him anything. He became enraged and left, thinking, “Ah, nobody has given anything at all to me, the victim. These are terrible mendicants. Their minds are not peaceful, they have no compassion, and neither do they have loving minds. Giving to them is fruitless. Only foolish sponsors would give to that sort. If I were king, I would slice off all their heads with an iron disc.”
The other fellow, however, inquired whether the monks had abundant food and drink, and he approached after the Buddha had offered the meal prayer. He then received a satisfying abundance of food and drink, and was deeply contented. He went outside and thought, “Ah! These great mendicants who have given me, a sufferer, a satisfying abundance of food and drink are compassionate. They have peaceful minds and loving characters. This will satisfy me for a full week. It is a wise and fine patron who gives to such excellent objects of generosity. Such generosity bears great fruit. Excellent! If I were king, I would honor the saṅgha of monks, including the Buddha, through all means of service for seven days. May it be so!”
Then the Blessed One was served the midday meal. He cleaned his bowl, washed his hands, and then spoke to Venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, henceforth speak well of those who do not take food and drink.” Pratibhānamati and his entourage sat in front of the Blessed One, who gave them a delightful,[F.341.b] praiseworthy, applicable, and lucid Dharma talk that produced roots of virtue in a multitude of beings. Then he rose from his seat and went back to Jeta’s Grove.
Then, those two anguished men wandered about and thus ended up taking rest in different parts of the land. As they laid down, a canopy of clouds filled with lightning and wind hovered in the sky above the meritorious one, thus shading him. At that time, the king of that country passed away. Since there was no one else in the region who had sufficient royal qualities to be entrusted with the country, the citizens, including the merchants, townspeople, village folk, high ministers, ministers, guards, and retainers diligently inquired among diviners, soothsayers, and those skilled in the movements of the stars and planets as to who should become their king. The reply was, “There is a poor man who is qualified. He should become king.”
Lithang, Narthang, Choné, and Lhasa read sred pa, meaning “craving,” or “thirst.” So, this line could also read, “They have gained certainty in freedom from the suffering of craving.”
An attainment of effortless insight into emptiness and the lack of birth of phenomena. This attainment only occurs on the bodhisattva levels, variously said to occur on the first and eighth bodhisattva levels.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
A wealthy merchant in the town of Śrāvastī, famous for his generosity to the poor, who became a patron of the Buddha Śākyamuni. He bought Prince Jeta’s Grove (Skt. Jetavana), to be the Buddha’s first monastery, a place where the monks could stay during the monsoon.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
The name for the canon of monastic discipline recorded in the Tripiṭaka, of the vows and commitments enshrined therein, and of the practice of that discipline.
Also known as “five contaminations or degenerations” (snyigs ma lnga, pañcakaṣāya). They are: (1) degeneration of lifespan, (2) degeneration of view or thoughts, (3) degeneration of the five afflictions, (4) degeneration of sentient beings, (5) degeneration of time.
A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”
In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.
In the most general sense the devas—the term is cognate with the English divine—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.
The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”
One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, considered to be the karmic fruition of past anger and harmful actions. According to Buddhist tradtion there are eighteen different hells, namely eight hot hells, eight cold hells, neighbouring and ephemeral hells, all of them tormented by increasing levels of unimaginable suffering.
One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.
They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.1281– 2.1482.
See “Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park.”
One of the first Buddhist monasteries, located in a park outside Śrāvastī, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kośala in northern India. This park was originally owned by Prince Jeta, hence the name Jetavana, meaning Jeta’s grove. The wealthy merchant Anāthapiṇḍada, wishing to offer it to the Buddha, sought to buy it from him, but the prince, not wishing to sell, said he would only do so if Anāthapiṇḍada covered the entire property with gold coins. Anāthapiṇḍada agreed, and managed to cover all of the park except the entrance, hence the name Anāthapiṇḍadasyārāmaḥ, meaning Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. The place is usually referred to in the sūtras as “Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park,” and according to the Saṃghabhedavastu the Buddha used Prince Jeta’s name in first place because that was Prince Jeta’s own unspoken wish while Anāthapiṇḍada was offering the park. Inspired by the occasion and the Buddha’s use of his name, Prince Jeta then offered the rest of the property and had an entrance gate built. The Buddha specifically instructed those who recite the sūtras to use Prince Jeta’s name in first place to commemorate the mutual effort of both benefactors.
Anāthapiṇḍada built residences for the monks, to house them during the monsoon season, thus creating the first Buddhist monastery. It was one of the Buddha’s main residences, where he spent around nineteen rainy season retreats, and it was therefore the setting for many of the Buddha’s discourses and events. According to the travel accounts of Chinese monks, it was still in use as a Buddhist monastery in the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, but by the sixth century it had been reduced to ruins.
The term is used as a reference to the northern direction, which is governed by the deity Kubera.
A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name—which means “is that human?”—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.
An epithet for Vaiśravaṇa, the god of wealth.
Ruler of the hell realms.
Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.
The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”
For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).
A term used broadly to denote a spiritual seeker.
A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.
An Indian Bengali paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late 8th / early 9th centuries. Arriving in Tibet on an invitation from the Tibetan king, he assisted in the translation of numerous canonical scriptures. He is also the author of a few philosophical commentaries contained in the Tibetan Tengyur (bstan ’gyur) collection.
A merchant of the city of Śrāvastī who is the primary interlocutor in this sūtra.
A twice monthly ceremony performed by monks, nuns, and novices in which the ordained confess and remedy transgressions of their vows, thereby purifying and restoring the vows.
An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.
Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyekabuddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.
During the life of the Buddha, Śrāvastī was the capital city of the powerful kingdom of Kośala, ruled by King Prasenajit, who became a follower and patron of the Buddha. It was also the hometown of Anāthapiṇḍada, the wealthy patron who first invited the Buddha there, and then offered him a park known as Jetavana, Prince Jeta’s Grove, which became one of the first Buddhist monasteries. The Buddha is said to have spent about twenty-five rainy seasons with his disciples in Śrāvastī, thus it is named as the setting of numerous events and teachings. It is located in present-day Uttar Pradesh in northern India.
The first level of Noble Ones on the path of the hearers.
Literally in the Tibetan, a support of veneration. Usually a heap or circular archeological structure containing relics of the masters of the past.
Abstaining from killing, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, lying, uttering divisive talk, speaking harsh words, gossiping, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views.
A collective term for desire, anger, and delusion
The three realms are the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu) and the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu), i.e., the three worlds that make up saṃsāra. The first is composed of the six classes of beings (gods, asuras, humans, animals, hungry spirits and hell beings), whereas the latter two are only realms of gods and are thus higher, more ethereal states of saṃsāra.
A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.
The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvisāhasramahāsāhasralokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.
An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13.
Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.
A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa.
Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.
Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.
’phags pa spobs pa’i blo gros kyis zhus pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Toh 151, Degé Kangyur vol. 57 (mdo sde, pa), folios 331.b–344.a.
’phags pa spobs pa’i blo gros kyis zhus pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 57, 879–913.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan [/ lhan] dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Degé Tengyur, vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Phangthangma (dkar chag ’phang thang ma). Beijing: Mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003.
Herrmann-Pfandt, Adelheid. Die lHan kar ma: ein früher Katalog der ins Tibetische übersetzten buddhistischen Texte.Wien: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2008.
Robson, James. “Taking a Meal at a Lay Supporter’s Residence: The Evolution of the Practice in Chinese Vinaya Commentaries” in Buddhist Monasticism in East Asia: Places of Practice. London: Routledge, 2009.
